European Precedents and the Early Industrial Revolution

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Adamowicz, Laurent. (March 2007). Codes and symbols of European tools, part I. The Chronicle. 60(1). pg. 1-9. IS.

• This article has an extensive list of references.

Alexander, John. (1962). Greeks, Italians and the earliest Balkan Iron Age. Antiquity. 36. pg. 123-130.

Alfrey, J. and Clark, C. (1993). The landscape of industry: Patterns of change in the Ironbridge Gorge. Routledge, London.

Allan, J. C. (1968). The accumulations of ancient slag in the south-west of the Iberian Peninsula. Bull. HMG. 2(1). pg. 47-50.

Allan, J. C. (1970). Considerations of the antiquity of mining in the Iberian Peninsula. R.A.I. Occas. Paper No 27. Royal Anthropological Institute, London.

Anstee, J. W. and Biek, L. (1961). A study in pattern welding. Med. Arch. 5, pg. 71-93.

Anteins, A. K. (1968). Structure and manufacturing techniques of pattern welded objects found in the Baltic States. JISI. 206, pg. 563-571.

Ashton, Thomas Sutcliffe. (1924). Iron and steel in the Industrial Revolution. Manchester University Press, London.

Ashton, Thomas Sutcliffe. (1948). The Industrial Revolution, 1760-1830. Oxford University Press, NY, NY. Reprinted in 1996. IS.

Ashton, T.S. (1951). Iron and steel in the industrial revolution. 2nd Ed. Manchester. pg. 24-59.

Atkinson, Norman. (1997). Sir Joseph Whitworth. Alan Sutton Publishing, UK.

Austin, John, and Ford, Malcolm. (1983). Steel town: Dronfield and Wilson Cammell 1873-1883. Scarsdale Publications, Sheffield, England.

Bain, Edgar C. (1939). Functions of the alloying elements in steel. American Society for Metals, Cleveland, OH. IS. http://www.msm.cam.ac.uk/phase-trans/2004/Bain.Alloying/ecbain.html

Baines, Edward. (1835). History of the cotton manufacture in Great Britain. Fisher, Fisher & Jackson, London, England.

Barber, Martyn. (2003). Bronze & the Bronze Age metalwork and society in Britain c. 2500 - 800 BCE. Tempus Publ. Ltd., Stroud, Gloucestershire, GL5 2QG, UK.

Barraclough, K.C. (1973). An eighteenth century steelmaking enterprise: The company of cutlers in Hallamshire, 1759-1772. Bull. Historical Metallurgy Group. 6(2). pg. 26-28.

Barraclough, K.C. (December 1973). The origins of the British steel industry. Metallurgy Materials Technology. pg. 623-629.

Barraclough, K.C. (1976). Sheffield steel. Moorland Publishing Co., Ltd. for Sheffield City Museums, Derbyshire, England. IS.

Barraclough, K.C. (1977). Benjamin Huntsman, 1704-1776. Journal of Historical Metallography Society. 11. pg. 25-29.

Barraclough, K.C. (1979). Early steelmaking in the Sheffield area. Trans Hunter Archaeological Society. 10. part 5. pg. 335-343.

Barraclough, K.C. (1984). Steelmaking before Bessemer: Blister steel, the birth of an industry. Volume 1. The Metals Society, London, England. IS.

Barraclough, K.C. (1984). Steelmaking before Bessemer: Crucible steel, the growth of technology. Volume 2. The Metals Society, London, England. IS.

Barraclough, K.C. (1990). Swedish iron and Sheffield steel. Transactions of the Newcomen Society. 61. pg. 79-80.

Barraclough, K.C. (1991). Steel in the Industrial Revolution. In: Day, J. and Tylecote, R.F. Eds. The Industrial Revolution in metals.  The Institute of Metals, London, England.

Barraclough, Kenneth C. and Kerr, J.A. (1976). Steel from 100 years ago. Historical Metallurgy. 10.

Beck, Ludwig. (1884-1903). Die geschichte des eisens in technischer und kulturgeschichtlicher beziehung, von dr. Ludwig Beck. F. Vieweg und sohn, Braunschweig.

• One of the definitive histories of iron and steel. 5 vols. This important text is not available in an English translation.

Bell, Isaac Lowthian. (1869). The chemistry of the blast-furnace. Harrison & Sons, Printers, London.

Bell, Isaac Lowthian. (1886). The iron trade of the United Kingdom compared with that of the other chief iron-making nations. British Iron Trade Association, London.

Berdrow, William. (1937). The Krupps: 150 years Krupp history 1787-1937. Translated by Fritz Homman. Paul Schmidt, Berlin.

Bergman, Torbern. (1781). Dissertatio chemica de analysi ferri. Uppsala, Sweden.

• Extracts from this text are reprinted in C. S. Smith's Sources for the history of the science of steel 1532 - 1786.

Bessemer, Henry, Sir. (August 13, 1856). The manufacture of iron (steel) without fuel. Cheltenham Meeting of the British Association [of iron makers].

• A complete copy of this paper may be found on page 156 of Sir Henry Bessemer, F.R.S. an autobiography. http://books.google.com/books?id=XOA-AAAAYAAJ&dq=bessemer+%22The+manufacture+of+malleable+iron+without+fuel%22&source=gbs_navlinks_s

Bessemer, Sir Henry. (1880). On the manufacture and uses of steel with special reference to its employment for edge tools. Paper read at Cutlers' Company of London, December 1, 1880.

Bessemer, Henry, Sir. (1905). Sir Henry Bessemer, F.R.S. an autobiography. With a concluding chapter. Offices of "Engineering," London. Reprinted ca. 1989 by Institute of Metals, Brookfield, VT.

Bexfield, Harold. (1945). A short history of Sheffield cutlery and the house of Wostenholm. Loxley Bros., Sheffield, England.

Bick, L. (1978). The archaeological iron and tin cycles. Archaeophysika. 10. pg. 75-81.

Birch, Alan. (1967). The economic history of the Bristish iron and steel industry 1784-1879. Frank Cass & Co.

Biringuccio, Vannoccio. (1942). The pirotechnia of Vannoccio Biringuccio: The classic sixteenth-century treatise on metals and metallurgy. American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers. Translated from the Italian and edited by Cyril Stanley Smith and Martha Teach Gnudi. Published by Dover, Mineola, NY in 1990. IS.

• Extracts from this text are reprinted in C. S. Smith's Sources for the history of the science of steel 1532 - 1786.

Blackburn, Roderic H. Kelley, Nancy A. New World Dutch Studies: Dutch Arts and Culture in Colonial America 1609-1776. Albany Institute of History and Art, Albany, NY. IS.

Blair, Peter Hunter. (1963). Roman Britain and early England: 55 B.C. - A.D. 871. Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd., London. IS.

Boas, Marie. (1962). The scientific renaissance 1450 - 1630. Harper Torchbooks, Harper & Row, NY, NY. IS.

Bober, Harry. (1981). Jan van Vliet’s book of crafts and trades, with a reappraisal of his etchings. Early American Industries Association, Albany, NY. IS.

• This text contains 18 loose leaf reproductions of van Vliet’s etchings of craftsmen at their trades done in the 1630s.

Bohler, R.F. (1908). Tool steel making in Styria. School of Mines Q. xxix. pg. 329-341.

Boileau, Etienne. (1268). Le livre des metiers de Paris. [The Book of Paris Trades.] Original is in the Bibliotheque Nationale de France.

Bourke, Cormac. (2001). Antiquities from the River Blackwater III, iron axe-heads. Ulster Journal of Archaeology. 60. pg. 63 - 93. IS.

• 140 shaft hole heads were recovered, cataloged and studied as a result of dredging operations in the River Blackwell in Cos Armagh and Tyrone in Ireland. "The material is largely of medieval date." The work was sponsored by the Department of Archaeology and Ethnography, Ulster Museum, Belfast, Ireland; this is the third in series of articles on Bronze and Iron Age axe-heads salvaged from dredging of the river.
• Almost all the axe-heads are illustrated with top and side profiles; a variety of medieval as well as Roman ax patterns are illustrated including a number with the characteristic lugs of the Roman ax. Of particular interest to students of the American ax are specimens Nos. 107, 108, 109,110, and 134, which have the look and shape of the traditional American felling ax with its heavy poll and a elongated shaft hole. This raises the question as to whether the American felling ax, in comparison to the common European trade ax (also illustrated) is an indigenous form unique to North America, or whether American pattern prototypes were already being manufactured and utilized in late medieval and early modern Ireland (1400 - 1650 A.D.) just prior to European settlement of North America.
• Other forms similar to American axes such as lathing hatchets and campers axes are mixed in the grouping of the 140 axes illustrated; the great majority of the axes recovered are however, medieval in appearance. Did a Irish blacksmith immigrate to America and manufacture the American felling ax based on a Irish prototype?

Bracegirdle, Brian. (1973). The archaeology of the industrial revolution. Heinemann, London, UK.

Bradbury, Frederick. (1912). History of old Sheffield Plate. Macmillan & Co.

Braidwood, Robert J. (1964). Prehistoric men. Scott, Foresman and Company, Glenview, IL. IS.

Breant, J.R. (1823). Description d'un procede al'aide duquel on obtient une espece d'acier fondu, sembable a celui des lames damassees Orientales. Bull. Societe d'Encouragement pour l'Industrie Nationale. 22. pg. 222-227. Reprinted in: (1824). Annales de Mines. 9. pg. 319-328. English translation (1824). Reportory of Arts. 45. pg. 306-314; (1824). Technical Repository. 6. pg. 49-55; and (1824). Annals of Philosophy. 8. pg. 267-271.

Brearley, H. (1933). Steel makers. Longmans Green, London, England.

Briggs, Asa. (1979). Iron Bridge to Crystal Palace: Impact and images of the Industrial Revolution. Thames and Hudson in collaboration with the Ironbridge Gorge Museum Trust, London, England.

Brown, Burton T. (1954). The coming of iron to Greece. London.

Burgess, Colin. (1968). Bronze Age metalwork in northern England c. 1000 to 700 B.C. Oriel Press, London. IS.

• With a metallurgical index by R. F. Tylecote.

Burke, James. (2007). Connections. Simon & Schuster, New York.

Burne, Gordon. (1984). Iron and steel. Wayland, East Sussex, England. IS.

• See annotations in the Children's bibliography.

Burnham, Thomas H. and Hoskins, George O. (1943). Iron and steel in Britian, 1870-1930. Allen & Unwin.

Caley, E. R. (1964). Analysis of ancient metals. Pergamon, Oxford.

Callan, G.B. (1969/1970). 400 years of iron and steel. Sanderson Kayser Magazine. 2(4).

Calvo, F. A. (1963). Metallurgy in Spain. The Metallurgist. 2(7). pg. 160-167.

Campbell, R. (1747). The London tradesman, being a compendious view of all the trades, professions, arts, both liberal and mechanic, now practiced in the cities of London and Westminster. Calculated for the information of parents, and instruction of youth in their choice of business. T. Gardner, London, England.

Cantrell, J.A. (1984). James Nasmyth and the Bridgewater foundry. A study of entrepreneurship in the early engineering industry. Manchester University Press, Manchester, UK.

Cantrell, John and Cookson, Gillian. (2002). Henry Maudslay & the pioneers of the machine age. Tempus Publishing Limited, London, England. IS.

• An excellent survey of the rise of English engineering, machine design and construction in the early 19th century.

Carnegie, D. (1913). Liquid steel: Its manufacture and cost. Longmans Green, London, England.

Carpenter, H.C.H. (January 27, 1928). Alloy steels, their manufacture, properties and uses. Journal of Royal Society of Arts. 76. pg. 251.

Carr, J.C. and Taplin, W. (1962). History of the British steel industry. Blackwell, Oxford, England.

Ceram, C.W. (1956). The secret of the Hittites: The discovery of an ancient empire. Alfred A Knopf, NY, NY. Translated from the German by Richard and Clara Winston.

• In documenting the dominance of the central Awatolean Europe of the Hittites over Asia Minor between 1800 and 1200 BCE, Ceram makes no connection between the advances in the metallurgy of bronze horse hardware and weapons production and the military prowess of the Hittites.
• Sources such as Forbes (1950) note extensive use of iron by the Hittites, especially after 1500.
• It is still not known when wrought iron horse-related hardware replaced bronze hardware.
• "At some time during this period, [1500 BCE] in some place among the Hittites, Hurrians, Kassites, and the barbarian Hyksos, horse-training, the art of riding, and a special form of two-wheeled chariot had been perfected.  The light battle-chariot had become a new weapon of war." (pg. 155).
• "The wheels of the light Hittite chariot were not solid discs.  They were six-spoked wheels which gave the vehicle the smart look of a nineteenth-century English dog-cart.  Their great advantage lay in their speed and their mobility.  Massed in formation these war-chariots revolutionized military strategy." (pg. 157).
• "It must be remembered that the division of early history into the Stone Age, the Bronze Age, and so on, is outmoded now that the concept of cultural history has come to the fore. Therefore it is of no great historical importance to note that the Hittites knew iron at a very early period, perhaps as early as the time of Labarnas. Around 1600 B.C. they appear to have had a certain monopoly in the manufacture of iron. But it is wrong to imagine, as older writers have done, that in those ancient times a material had only to be invented or discovered for it to start affecting history. If amutum in the Kültepe texts has been correctly read and interpreted as the word for 'iron'—and the evidence is strong— then in early Hittite history iron was five times more expensive than gold, forty times dearer than silver. For centuries it must have been the rarest of luxuries. And in fact the Pharaohs wrote letters to the Hittite kings begging for some iron—requests that were haughtily rejected. Iron was a precious metal from which ornaments, not weapons, were made. And it seems likely that the first iron weapons were qualitatively by no means equal to the tried and true stone and bronze weapons. The actual 'iron age' came many centuries later; it was probably introduced by the 'peoples of the sea' whose iron weapons overthrew the Hittite Empire and blotted it from history for hundreds of years." (pg. 211-212).

Charles, James A. (1980). The coming of copper and copper-base alloys and iron: A metallurgical sequence. In: Wertime, Theodore A. and Muhly, James D., Eds. The coming of the age of iron. Yale University Press, New Haven, CT. IS.

Charnock, John. (1800-1802). History of marine architecture. 3 vols. Quarto, London.

Childe, Vere Gordon. (1925). The dawn of European civilization. Knopf, NY, NY.

Childe, Vere Gordon. (1930). The Bronze Age. The Macmillan Company, NY, NY.

Childe, Vere Gordon. (1934). New light on the most ancient East; the oriental prelude to European prehistory. K. Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., Ltd., London. W.

Childe, Vere Gordon. (1944). The story of tools. Cobbett Publishing Co. Ltd., London. W.

Childe, Vere Gordon. (1944). Archaeological ages as technological stages. Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britian and Ireland. 74. pg. 7-24. IS.

Childe, Vere Gordon. (1947). Prehistoric communities of the Brtish Isles. Chambers, London.

Childe, Vere Gordon. (1951). Man makes himself. New American Library, NY, NY.

Church, R.A. and Wrigley, E.A. Eds. (1994). The Industrial Revolutions. 11 volumes. The Economic History Society, Oxford.

• See especially volumes 2 and 3 The Industrial Revolution in Britain, volumes 4 and 5 The Industrial Revolution in Europe, and volume 6 The Industrial Revolution in America.

Clark, Grahame and Piggott, Stuart. (1965). Prehistoric Societies. In the series: The History of Human Society. J. H. Plumb., Ed., Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., NY, NY. IS.

Clark, J.D.H. (1952). Prehistoric Europe: The economic basis . Stanford University Press, London.

Clarke, Helen. (1979). Iron and man in prehistoric Sweden. Jernkontoret, Stockholm, Sweden.

Cleere, H. F. (1972). The classification of early iron-smelting furnaces. Antiquaries Journal. 52. pg. 8-23.

Cleere, Henry and Crossley, David. (1985). The iron industry of the Weald. Leicester University Press, Avon, UK. IS.

• The most important of all texts on the iron and steel producing region of the Weald, in Sussex to the south and east of London.  Along with the Forest of Dean to the west, the bloomeries and blast furnaces of the Weald produced most of the iron and steel of Tudor England in the 16th century, prior to the evolution of the iron industry in the midlands in the next century, in Newcastle in the early 18th century, and Sheffield after 1750.
• The most important Roman source of iron and steel outside of Noricum.  Cleere and Crossley note the pre-existing Wealdean iron industry of the early Iron Age was well established when Caesar first visited England and may have played a role in motivating the conquest of England in 43 AD.
• Contains information about the migration of French blacksmiths and forge masters to this region in the first half of the 16th century.  The continental method of decarburizing cast iron to produce wrought iron, malleable iron, and raw steel was brought to England by these immigrants.
• Cleere dates the first appearance of the blast furnace in England as 1490, based on continental European designs.  By 1520, the use of the blast furnace became commonplace in the Weald, replacing the bloomery and playing a major role in Henry the Eighth's production of canons to protect the south shore of England from French pirates and invaders.
• Steel production during the Elizabethan era is poorly documented, but could only have been produced in the quantities necessary to sustain the British Navy in the days of the Spanish Armada (1588) by the continental method of decarburizing cast iron, a century before the widespread development of the cementation furnace for making blister steel.

Clough, R.E. (1985). The iron industry in the iron age and Romano-British period. In: Craddock, P.T. and Hughes, M.J., Eds. Furnaces and smelting technology in antiquity. British Museum Occasional Paper 48, London, England. IS.

• "Current theories concerning the early iron industry in Britain have their origins deeply entrenched in nineteenth century ethnography. The present model of 'bowl' furnace succeeded by shaft furnace can be seen as far back as 1864 in Percy's volume Iron and Steel.  From records of early observations of the industry in India he categorises furnaces into three types, ranging from the primitive low hearth of the Agaria to the more advanced shaft furnaces of Tendukera whose equivalents can be seen in the European, the Catalan furnace and the German Stuckofen (Percy 1864, 255).  Similar possibly derivative models can be seen throughout subsequent archaeological literature: Gowland (1899), Coghlan (1956) and Tyiecote (1962).  All accept the small, non-tapping bowl furnace to be characteristic of the Pre-Roman industry in Britain just as the slag tapping shaft furnace is characteristic of the Roman industry.  In accepting this model a growing body of archaeological, technological and experimental literature supporting an alternative interpretation was overlooked." (pg. 179).
• See our information file on early furnace technology to see some illustrations from this paper.

Coghlan, H.H. (1951). Notes on the prehistoric metallurgy of copper and bronze in the Old World. publisher unknown.

Coghlan, H.H. (1977). Notes on prehistoric and early iron in the Old World. Pitts-Rivers Mus. Occas. Papers on Technology, No. 8.

Coghlan, H.H. and Case, H. (1957). Early metallurgy of copper in Ireland and Britain. Proceedings Prehist. Soc. XXIII. pg. 91 - 123.

Cooper, Carolyn C. (1981/1982). The production line at the Portsmouth blockmill. Industrial Archaeology Review. 6. pg. 28-44. IS.

• Portsmouth, England.

Cooper, Carolyn C. (April 1984). The Portsmouth system of manufacture. Technology and Culture. 25. pg. 182-225. X(2).

Cope, Kenneth L. (1999). American wrench makers 1830 - 1915. Astragal Press, Mendham, NJ. IS.

Court, William H.B. (1938). The rise and fall of the midlands. Oxford University Press, London.

Cowgill, J., De Neergaard, M. and Griffiths, N. (2000). Knives and scabbards, medieval finds from excavations in London. The Boydel Press, Woodbridge.

Cox, Nancy. (1990). Imagination and innovation of an industrial pioneer: The first Abraham Darby. Industrial Archaeology Review. 12(2). pg. 127-44.

Craddock, P. T. (1986). Evidence for Bronze Age metallurgy in Britain. Current Arch. 9(4). pg. 106-109.

Craddock, P.T. (1995). Early metal mining and production. Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh, Scotland.

Craddock, P.T. (1998). New light on the production of crucible steel in Asia. Bulletin of the Metals Museum of Japan Institute of Metals. Sendai, Japan. W.

Craddock, P.T. and Hughes, M.J., Eds. (1985). Furnaces and smelting technology in antiquity. British Museum Occasional Paper 48, London, England. Reprinted in 1992 and 1996. IS.

• See our information file on early furnace technology to see some illustrations from this paper.

Cramer, Clayton E. (December 10, 1995). What caused the Iron Age? Ancient Near East. IS.

Cramer, Johann Andreas. (1739). Elementa artis docimasticae. Leyden. Translated into English by Mortimer, Cromwell in 1741, London.

• Extracts from this text are reprinted in C. S. Smith's Sources for the history of the science of steel 1532 - 1786.

Crossley, D.W. (1966). The management of a 16th century ironworks. Econ. Hist. Rev. 19(2). pg. 273-288.

Crossley, D.W. (1973). The Bewl Valley Ironworks. Royal Arch. Inst. Monogr. London.

Crossley, D.W. (1975). Sidney ironworks accounts, 1541-1573. Offices of the Royal Historical Society, London, England.

Crossley, D.W. (1984). The survival of early blast furnaces: a world survey. JHMS. 18(2). pg. 112-131.

Crossley, David (1990). Post-medieval archaeology in Britain. Leicester University Press, Leicester, UK.

Dane, E. Surrey. (1973). Peter Stubs and the Lancashire hand tool industry. John Sherratt and Son Lt., Altrincham, Great Britain. IS.

• The best introduction to a very important toolmaker who played a key role in the Industrial Revolution.
• A number of Stubbs tools are in the collection of the Davistown Museum.

Daumas, Maurice, Ed. (1969). A history of technology and invention: Progress through the ages: Volume II: The first stages of mechanization. Crown Publishers, Inc., NY, NY. Originally published as Histoire Generale des Techniques in 1964 published by Presses Universitaires de France. IS.

• A description of the clockmaker's lathe from this text is in our Hand Tools in History section.

Davies, Oliver. (1935). Roman mines in Europe. The Clarendon Press, Oxford, UK.

Davis, O. (1935). Roman mines in Europe. Oxford University Press, Oxford, England.

Day, Joan and Tylecote, R. F. Eds. (1991). The Industrial Revolution in metals. The Institute of Metals, Brookfield, VT. IS.

• One of the best texts on the history of metallurgy, indispensable.

Deane, Phillis. (1967). The first Industrial Revolution. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, MA.

della Porta, Giovanni Battista. (1589). Of tempering steel. Written in Latin in: Magiae Naturalis Libri Viginti, Naples, Italy.  An anonymous English translation done in 1658, London, pg. 305-312.

• Extracts from this text are reprinted in C. S. Smith's Sources for the history of the science of steel 1532 - 1786.

de Morveau, Louis Bernard Guyton, (1786). Acier. In: Encyclopédie Méthodique. Chymie, Pharmacie et Métallurgie. Vol. 1. Paris, France.

• Extracts from this text are reprinted in C. S. Smith's Sources for the history of the science of steel 1532 - 1786.

Dennis, W.H. (1967). Foundations of iron and steel metallurgy. Elsevier Science, Amsterdam, Holland.

Derry, Thomas K. and Williams, Trevor I. (1961). A short history of technology from the earliest times to A.D. 1900. Dover Publications, Inc., New York, NY. IS.

Dickinson, H.W. (1939). A short history of the steam engine. Babcock and Wilcox, Lynchburg, VA.

Diderot, Denis. (1959). A Diderot pictorial encyclopedia of trades and industry: Manufacturing and the technical arts in plates selected from "L'Encyclopédie, ou Dictionnaire Raisonné des Sciences, des Arts et des Métiers" of Denis Diderot: In two volumes. Vol. 1 and 2. Dover Publications Inc., NY, NY.  Also reprinted by Astragal Press, Mendham, NJ. IS.

• Reprinted here are 485 full page plates from the original encyclopedia by Diderot (see below.)
• A plate with some information on joiners has been included from this text in volume 8 of the Hand Tools in History Publication Series.
• One of the most important sources of information on the trades of the early Industrial Revolution.

Diderot, D. and d'Alembert, J. (1751-1777). L' Encyclopédie ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers. 22 vols. Braissons, Paris.

• The Astragal Press has published a reprint of some of this reference set, see the citation above.

Diderot, Denis and d'Alembert, Jean Baptiste le Rond. (1964-5). Recueil de planches sur les sciences, les arts libéraux, et les arts mechaniques avec leur explication. Au Cercle du Livre Precieux, Paris. IS: Vols I - VI.

Diderot, Denis and d'Alembert, Jean Baptiste le Rond. (1969). Pictorial Encyclopedia of Science Art and Technology [Also called: Compact edition: Recueil de planches sur les sciences, les arts libéraux, et les arts mechaniques avec leur explication]. Vols. 18-28. Readex Microprint Corporation, New York, NY. IS.

Earwood, Caroline. (1993). Domestic wooden artefacts in Britain and Ireland from neolithic to viking times. University of Exeter Press, Exeter, England.

• Contains an excellent chapter on cooperage (6) and another on turning and woodworking tools (7).
• There is an excellent photograph of hafted bronze socket axes on page 205.
• "The oldest know strave-built container from continental Europe came from a Hallstatt grave in Munsinger, Bayern (Capelle 1983)." (pg. 169).

Emmerling, J. (1978). The technology of Roman swords. Alt Thuringen. 15. pg. 92-102.

Evans, Chris and Rydén, Göran. (2007). Baltic iron in the Atlantic world in the eighteenth century. Brill, Boston, MA.

Evans, E.E. (1948). Strange iron objects from county Fermanagh, Ireland. UJA. 11. pg. 58.

Fairbairn, W. (1859). On the progress of civil and mechanical engineering.

Fincham, John. (1851). A history of naval architecture. Whittaker and Co., London.

Flinn, M. W. (1962). Men of iron: The Crowleys in the early iron industry. The Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh, Scotland.

Friend, J. Newton. (1926). Iron in antiquity. Charles Griffin and Co., London.

Forbes, R.J. (1950). Metallurgy in antiquity: A notebook for archaeologists and technologists. E. J. Brill, Leiden, Netherlands. W.

• See some citations from this text in our information files on furnace types and metallurgy.

Forbes, R.J. (1955). Studies in ancient technology. E. J. Brill, Leiden.

Frere, S.S., Ed. (1958). Problems of the iron age in Britain. Occas. Paper No. 11. Inst. Of Archaeology, London.

Friede, H. and Steel, R. (1985). Iron Age iron smelting furnaces of the Western/Central Transvaal – their structure, typology, and affinities. The South African Archaeological Bulletin. 40. pg. 45-9.

Gadd, Ian Anders and Walles, Patrick, Eds. (2002). Guilds, society and economy in London, 1450-1800. Center for Metropolitan History et al., London, UK.

Gale, N.H., Papastamataki, A., Stos-Gale, Z.A. and Leonis, K. (1985). Copper sources and copper metallurgy in the Aegean bronze age.  In: Craddock, P.T. and Hughes, M.J., Eds. Furnaces and smelting technology in antiquity. British Museum Occasional Paper 48, London, England. IS.

• See our information file on early furnace technology to see some illustrations from this paper.

Gale, W.K.V. (1967). The British iron and steel industry. Newton Abbot, England.

Gale, W.K.V. (1979). Iron and steel. Museum booklet no. 20.05. Ironbridge Gorge Museum Trust, Shropshire, England.

Gardner, J. Starkie. (1892). Victoria & Albert Museum: Ironwork: Part I. From the earliest times to the end of the mediaeval period. Printed under the authority of the Board of Education, London. Photolitho impression with supplementary bibliography compiled by Marian Campbell in 1978. IS.

Gardner, J. Starkie. (1896). Victoria & Albert Museum: Ironwork: Part II. Continental ironwork of the Renaissance and later periods. Printed under the authority of the Board of Education, London. Photolitho impression with supplementary bibliography compiled by Marian Campbell in 1978. IS.

Gardner, J. Starkie. (1922). Victoria & Albert Museum: Ironwork: Part III. The artistic working of iron in Great Britain from the earlist times. Printed under the authority of His Majesty's Stationary Office, London. Photolitho impression with supplementary bibliography compiled by Marian Campbell in 1978. IS.

Gilbert, K.R. (1965). The Portsmouth blockmaking machinery; a pioneering enterprise in mass production. H.M. Stationery Office, London.

Gilbert, K.R. (1971). Henry Maudslay: Machine builder. H.M.S.O., London.

Gilbert, K.R. (1975). Early machine tools. His Majesty's Stationary Office, London.

Gilles, J.W. (1957). The antiquity of the iron industry in the lower Siegerland. Stahl und Eisen. 77. pg. 1883-1884.

Gilles, J.W. (1957). The first twenty five years of research in the Siegerland by digging ancient iron works. Arch. Eisenh. 28. pg. 179-185.

Gilles, J.W. (1958). New furnace finds in the Siegerland. Stahl und Eisen. 78. pg. 1200.

Giuseppi, M.S. (1912). Some 14th century accounts of ironworks at Tudeley, Kent. Arch. 64. pg. 145-164.

Glob, P. V. (1969). The bog people: Iron-age man preserved. Translated from the Danish by Rupert Bruce-Mitford. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY. IS.

Goodman, W.L. (1964). The history of woodworking tools. David McKay Company, Inc., NY, NY. IS.

• The most important of all publications on woodworking tools and their evolving forms.
• The table woodworker's toolkits at various periods and a photograph showing old tools on a gravestone are reprinted in our Steel and Tool Making Strategies and Techniques before 1870 section.

Gordon, Robert B. (1987). Sixteenth-century metalworking technology used in the manufacture of two German astrolabes. Annals of Science. 44. pg. 71-84. W.

Gordon, R.G. and Reynolds, T.S. (1986). Medieval iron in society. Technology and Culture. 27(1). pg. 110-117. W.

Grabb, J.R. (March 1975). Shera steel, a forgotten but useful metal. CEAIA. 28. pg. 8-11. W.

Grant, Michael. (1969). The ancient Mediterranean. A Meridian book, New American Library, NAL Penguin, Inc., NY, NY. IS.

Green-Plumb, Jonathan. (2012). Early European decorated tools from the woodworking and allied trades. Stobart Davies Ltd, Carmarthenshire, UK.

Griffiths. Samuel. (1873). Griffiths' guide to the iron trade of Great Britian. Davis & Charles, Newton Abbott, Devon, England. Reprintrd in 1967 with an introduction by Gale, W.K.V.

Grignon, Pierre Clément. (1755). Mémoires de physique sur l'art de fabriquer le fer. Delalin, Paris, France.

• Extracts from this text are reprinted in C. S. Smith's Sources for the history of the science of steel 1532 - 1786.

Guest, Richard. (1823). A compendious history of the cotton manufacture. Printed by J. Pratt, Manchester. Facsimile reprint of 1st ed. in 1968 by Cass, London, England.

Hadfield, Robert A. (1921). The work and position of the metallurgical chemist, also references to Sheffield and its place in metallurgy. C. Griffin & Co., London.

• See more citations of Hadfield's publications in the metallurgy bibliography.

Hamilton, H. (1966). The Industrial Revolution in Scotland. Frank Cass Publishers, London.

Harbord, F.W. and Hall, J. W. (1911). The metallurgy of steel. Charles Griffin, London.

Harris, J.R. (1978). Attempts to transfer English steel techniques to France in the eighteenth century. Business and Businessmen. Marriner, S., Liverpool.

Harrison, Richard J. (1980). The beaker folk: Copper Age archaeology in western Europe. Thames and Hudson Ltd., London. IS.

Hayman, Richard. (2005). Ironmaking: The history and archaeology of the iron industry. Tempus Publishing Ltd., Stroud, UK. IS.

Hayman, Richard and Horton, Wendy. (2003). Ironbridge: History & guide. Tempus Publishing Ltd., Stroud, UK. IS.

Haywood, John and Cunliffe, Barry. (2001). The historical atlas of the Celtic world. Thames & Hudson, London, England. IS.

• A particularly handy overview of early European communities and trading periods.

Healy, J.F. (1978). Mining and metallurgy in the Greek and Roman world. Thames and Hudson, London.

Hedges, R.E.M. and Salter, C.J. (1979). Source determination of iron currency bars through the analysis of slag inclusions. Archaeometry. 21(2). pg. 161-75.

Henderson, W.O. (1965). Britain and Industrial Europe 1750 - 1870. Leicester University Press, Leicester, UK.

Henderson, W.O. (1966). J.C. Fischer and his diary of industrial England 1814-1851. A.M. Kelley, New York, NY.

Hermelin, E., Tholander, E. and Blomgren, S. (1979). A prehistoric nickel-alloyed iron axe. JHMS. 13(2). pg. 69-94.

Heskel, Dennis and Lamberg-Karlovsky, Carl Clifford. (1980). An alternative sequence for the development of metallurgy: Tepe Yahya, Iran. In: Wertime, Theodore A. and Muhly, James D., Eds. The coming of the age of iron. Yale University Press, New Haven, CT. IS.

Hey, David. (March 2005). The South Yorkshire steel industry and the Industrial Revolution. Northern History. 62(1). pg. 91-6. IS.

Higham, Norman. (1963). A very scientific gentleman: The major achievements of Henry Clifton Sorby.Elsevier, London.

Hills, Richard. (1970). Power in the Industrial Revolution. Manchester University Press, Manchester, England.

Hills, Richard. (1994). Power from wind: A history of windmill technology. Cambridge University Press.

Historical Metallurgy Group of the Swedish Ironmasters Association. (1982). Iron and steel on the European market in the 17th century. Stockholm, Sweden.

Hodgkinson, J.S. and Tebbutt, C. F. (1985). A fieldwork study of the Romano-British iron industry in the weald of southern England. In: Craddock, P.T. and Hughes, M.J., Eds. Furnaces and smelting technology in antiquity. British Museum Occasional Paper 48, London, England. IS.

• See our information file on early furnace technology to see some illustrations from this paper.

Holland, J. (1824). The picture of Sheffield. Sheffield. UK.

Holtzapffel, Charles and Holtzapffel, John Jacob. (1846). Turning and mechanical manipulations. 5 Vols. Holtzapffel & Co. Ltd., London. Reprinted by Astragal Press, Mendham, NJ.

• The volume titles are: Volume I: Materials, their choice, preparation and various modes of working them; Volume II: Construction, action, and application of cutting tools; Volume III: Abrasive and other processes not accomplished with cutting tools; Volume IV: Hand or simple turning: Principles and practices; Volume V: The principles & practice of ornamental or complex turning.

Horne, H. (1773). Essays concerning iron and steel. T. Cadell, London, UK.

Hulme, E.W. (1943-1945). The pedigree and career of Benjamin Huntsman of Sheffield. Transactions of the Newcomen Society. 24. pg. 37-48.

Hunter, H.C. (1935). How England got its merchant marine, 1066-1776.  National Council of American Shipbuilders, New York, NY.

Huntsman, Benjamin Ltd. (1930). A brief history of the firm of B. Huntsman Ltd 1742-1930. Sheffield, England.

Jackson, Ralph. (1990). Camerton: The late Iron Age and early Roman metalwork. British Museum Press, London, England. IS.

• A detailed description of an important early Iron Age hoard.
• Dr. Jackson presented a copy of this text to the Davistown Museum (1/5/05) while the curator was visiting the British Museum. Many thanks.

James, Simon and Rigby, Valery. (1997). Britain and the Celtic Iron Age. British Museum Press, London, England. IS.

• See page 38 for illustrations of three pairs of shears of various sizes similar in design to sheep shears in the Museum collection and the "scissors" (ca. 1400) in the Historiches Museum, Amsterdam.
• "Scarcely a settlement of Iron Age date has not produced slag, suggesting that iron working, like potters, was a common element of everyday life. ...both tools and forging techniques changed little from the Pre-Roman Iron Age until the early years of the present century." (pg. 37).

Jars, M. G. (1774-1781). Voyages metallurgiques. 3 vols. L’Academie Royal des Sciences, Lyons, France.

Jenkins, Rhys. (1920-21). The rise and fall of the Sussex iron industry. Transactions of the Newcomen Society. 1. pg. 16-33.

Jenkins, Rhys. (1922-1923). Notes on the early history of steel making in England. Transactions of the Newcomen Society. 3. pg. 16-32.

Jenkins, Rhys. (1936-37). Industries of Herefordshire in bygone times. Transactions of the Newcomen Society. XVII. pg. 178.

Jenkins, Rhys. (1938-39). Ironfounding in England 1490-1603. Transactions of the Newcomen Society. XIX. pg. 35-48.

Jones, G.D.B. (1980). The Roman mines at Rio Tinto. J. Rom. Stud. 70. pg. 146-165.

Jordan, S. (1889). The iron and steel manufacture in France in 1887, as illustrated by the French exhibits at Paris. Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute. II. pg. 10-36.

Jousse, Mathurin. (1627). La fidelle ouverture de l'art de serrurier. La Flêche, France. English translation by Smith, C.S. and Sisco, A.G. in 1961, Technology and Culture. 2. pg. 131-145.

• Extracts from this text are reprinted in C. S. Smith's Sources for the history of the science of steel 1532 - 1786.

Kilburn, Terance. (1987). Joseph Whitworth, toolmaker. Scarthin Books, Cromford, Derbyshire, UK.

Kist, J.B., and Puype, J.P. (1974). Dutch Muskets and Pistols: An illustrated history of seventeenth century gunmaking in the Low Countries. George Shumway, US. IS.

Knight, S.A. (1993). The evolution and processes involved in the manufacture of armour plate up to the great war. Journal of the Ordnance Society. 5. pg. 57-74.

Korb, F. and Turner, T. (1889-90). The manufacture of Styrian open hearth steel. Journal of the South Staffordshire Institute of Iron and Steel Works Managers. pg. 6-10. W.

Kubota, K. (1970). Japan’s original steel making and its development under the influence of foreign technique. Coll. Int. Inst. CNRS. 538:577-91.

Lance, A.E. (1947). The iron ores of Germany. JISI. 156. pg. 449-476.

Landes, David. (1969). The unbound prometheus: Technological change and industrial development in western Europe from 1750 to the present. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.

Lang, J. (1995). A metallographic examination of eight Roman daggers from Britain. In: Raftery, Barry, Megaw, Vincent and Rigby, Val. Sites and sights of the Iron Age: Essays on fieldwork and museum research presented to Ian Mathieson Stead. Oxbow Monograph 56. Oxbow Books, Oxford, England. pg. 119 - 132. X.

Lang, J., Craddock, P.T. and Simpson, St. J. (1998). New evidence for early crucible steel. Journal of Historical Metallography Society. 32. pg. 7-14. W.

Lange, E.F. (1913). Bessemer, Goransson, and Mushet: A contribution to technical history. Manchester Memoirs. LVII(17). pg. 1-44.

Langouet, L. (1984). Alet and cross-channel trade. In: Macready, S. and Thompson, F.H., Eds. Cross-channel trade between Gaul and Britain in the Pre-Roman Iron Age. Occas. Paper IV. Soc. Of Antiquaries of London, London. pg. 7-77.

Le Play, F. (1843). Memoire sur la fabrication de l'acier en Yorkshire, et comparison des principaux groupes d'acieres Europeennes. Annales des Mines. 4(3). pg. 583-714. English translation: Barraclough, K.C. 1973. Bull. Hist. Met. Group. 7(1). 14-17.

Lea, Frederick Charles. (1946). A pioneer of mechanical engineering - Sir Joseph Whitworth. Pub. for the British Council by Longmans, Green, London.

Livadefs, C.J. (1956). The structural iron of the Parthenon. JISI. 182(1). pg. 49-66.

Long, Derek A. (December 2008). Fifteen early woodworking planes mostly dated to within the first millennium. The Chronicle. 61(4). pg. 157-65. IS.

Löwergren, Gunnar. (1948). Swedish iron and steel, a historical survey. English edited version by Nils G. Sahlin. Svenska handelsbanken, Stockholm, Sweden.

Luiken, Jan and Kasper. (1767). Spiegel van het menselyk Bedryf: vertoonende hondert verscheiden Ambachten. Houttuyn, Netherlands. IS.

Maddin, R., Muhly, J.D. and Wheeler, T.S. (October 1977). How the Iron Age began. Scientific American. pg. 131.

Magnusson, G. (1985). Lapphyttan – an example of medieval iron production. In: Medieval iron in society. ed. Nils Bjorkenstarn. Papers presented at the symposium in Norberg, May 6-10, 1985. Stockholm, Sweden. pg. 22- 57.

Maitland, Colonel. (1881). On the metallurgy and manufacture of mordern British ordnance. Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute. II. pg. 424-451.

Manning, W. H. (1985). Catalogue of the Romano-British iron tools, fittings and weapons in the British Museum. British Museum Publications Ltd., London, England. IS.

Maréchal, J.R. and Armand, H. (1960). Scientific researches on the metallurgy of the La Tène period and the Roman occupation of Savoy. Actes 85th Congr. of Learned Soc. Chambery, Annecy.

Martin, Thomas. (1813). The circle of mechanical arts. Gale Curtis and others, London.

Mattusch, C.C. (1977). Bronze and iron working; the Forum area. Hesperia. 46. pg. 380-389.

McGrath, J.N. (1972). A discussion of a reference to steel casting in the early eighteen century. Journal of the Arms and Armour Society. 7. pg. 53-55.

McHugh, Jeanne. (1980). Alexander Holley and the makers of steel. Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore, MD.

McNeil, Ian. (1968). Joseph Bramah. A century of invention 1749-1851. David & Charles, Devon, England.

Merton, Robert K. (1938). Science, technology, and society in seventeenth century England. Osiris. pg. 404, 496.

Millard, M. (1911/1912). Old methods of iron making. Proceedings of the Staffordshire Iron and Steel Institute. XXVII. pg. 184-196.

Mokyr, Joel. (1993). The British Industrial Revolution; an economic perspective. Westview Press, Boulder.

Moore, C.N. and Rowlands, M. (1972). Bronze Age metalwork in Salisbury Museum. Salisbury and South Wiltshire Museum Occasional Publication, Salisbury, Wiltshire, UK. IS.

Morton, G.R. and Wingrove, J. (1971). The charcoal finery and chafery forge. Bulletin of the Historical Metallurgy Group. 5(1). pg. 24-28.

Mott, R.A. (1950). The Shropshire iron industry. Transactions of the Shropshire Archaeological Society. 56. pg. 68-81.

Mott, R.A. (March 1965). The Sheffield crucible-steel industry and its founder, Benjamin Huntsman. Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute. 203. pg. 227-237.

Mott, R.A. and Singer, P. (1983). Henry Cort: The great finer. The Metals Society, London, England.

Mouret, Jean-Noël. (1993). Les outils de nos ancêtres. Hatier, France.

• This book is in French, but contains wonderful photographs of "the tools of our ancestors".

Moxon, Joseph. (1703). Mechanick exercises or the doctrine of handy-works. Reprinted in 1989 by The Astragal Press, Morristown, NJ. IS.

• This is the oldest dictionary of tools in the English language, and also one of the oldest how-to guides.  The illustrations of some of the basic tools at this date show how little the basic design has changed over a period of centuries e.g. planes, bucksaws, marking gauges, bevel squares, hammers, mallets, trowels, etc.
• A reproduction of part of plate 4, pg. 68, showing old plane forms can be seen in the Introduction to the Registry of Maine Toolmakers.

Muhly, James D. (1973). Copper and tin; the distribution of mineral resources and the nature of the metals trade in the Bronze Age. Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences, New Haven, CT.

Muhly, James D. (1973). Tin trade routes of the Bronze Age. Amer. Scient. 61. pg. 404-413.

Muhly, James D. (1977). New evidence for sources of and trade in Bronze Age tin. In: Franklin, A.D. et al., Eds. The search for ancient tin. Smithsonian Museum. pg. 43-48.

Muhly, James D. (1980). The Bronze Age setting. In: Wertime, Theodore A. and Muhly, James D., Eds. The coming of the age of iron. Yale University Press, New Haven, CT. IS.

Muirhead, James P. (1854). The mechanical inventions of James Watt. 3 vols. Murray, London.

Multhauf, Robert R. (July 1994). Book review: Iron and steel in ancient China by Donald B. Wagner. Technology and Culture: The International Quarterly of the Society for the History of Technology. 35(3). pg. 605-606. IS.

Mumford, Lewis. (1934). Technics and civilization. Harcourt, Brace & Co., NY, NY.

Mushet, D. (1805). Experiments on wootz. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 95. pg. 163-175.

Musson, A.E. (1978). The growth of British industry. Batsford.

Musson, A.E. and Robinson, E. (1969). Science and technology in the Industrial Revolution. Manchester University Press, Manchester, England.

Needham, J. (1958). The development of iron and steel technology in China. 2 Vols. Newcomen Society, London, UK. W.

Nicholson, John. (1831). The operative mechanic, and British machinist; being a practical display of the manufactories and mechanical arts of the United Kingdom. T. Desilver, Philadelphia, PA.

Nicholson, Peter. (1812). Mechanical exercises. London.

Nordström, Hans-Åke and Knape, Anita, Eds. (1989). Bronze Age studies: Transactions of the British-Scandinavian Colloquium in Stockholm, May 10-11, 1985. The Museum of National Antiquities, Stockholm, Studies 6, Statens Historiska Museum, Stockholm, Sweden. IS.

Nuttall, R.H. (1981). The first microscope of Henry Clifton Sorby. Technology and Culture. 22.

Oakley, Kenneth P. (1972). Man the tool-maker. Sixth Edition. Trustees of the British Museum (Natural History), London. IS.

Oddy, W.A. and Swaddling, Judith. (1985). Illustrations of metalworking furnaces on Greek vases. In: Craddock, P.T. and Hughes, M.J., Eds. Furnaces and smelting technology in antiquity. British Museum Occasional Paper 48, London, England. IS.

• "Shaft furnaces, which may reasonably be associated with metal-working operations, are depicted on seven known Greek vases, and may be inferred from existing sherds on three others.  These scenes have been used as illustrations on numerous occasions by historians of technology, but often with different interpretations as to what is actually depicted.  The purpose of this paper is to illustrate the furnaces and associated activities and to point out what can actually be seen.  The two main conclusions are first that where metalworking activities are in progress the operations are all concerned with the manufacture of metal objects and not with the smelting of ore, and second that where finished objects can be associated with the scenes, the objects are always things which were made of bronze and not iron." (pg. 43).
• (pg. 53).

O’Hara, J.G. and Williams, A.R. (1979). The technology of a 16th century staff weapon. Journal of the Arms and Armour Society. 9. pg. 198-200.

Osborn, Fred Marmaduke. (1952). The story of the Mushets. Thomas Nelson & Son, London.

Otto, Helmut. (1952). Handbuch der ältesten vorgeschichtlichen Metallurgie in Mitteleuropa. J. A. Barth, Leipzig, Germany.

Panseri, C. and Leoni, M. (1966). On the Etruscan technique for making iron arms: Examination of a sword from Montefiascone. Met. Ital. 58. pg. 381-89.

Parry, G. (1862/1863). On puddled steel. Proceedings of the South Wales Institute of Engineers. III. pg. 74-81.

Percy, J. (1864). The metallurgy of iron and steel. John Murray, London, UK.

Petree, J.F. (1964). Henry Maudslay - pioneer of precision. Engineering Heritage. 1.

Petrie, W. M. Flinders. (1917). Tools and weapons. London, British School of Archaeology in Egypt.

Piaskowski, Jerzy. (1982). On the manufacture of high-nickel iron Chalibean steel in antiquity. In: Wertime, Theodore. Early Pyrotechnology. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC.

• "Antiquity", i.e. c. 1900 BCE at the height of the Bronze Age.
• The iron sands of the Black Sea shore of northern Turkey gave rise to a robust nickel steel smelting community.

Piggott, Stuart. (1950). Swords and Scabbards of the British early Iron Age. Proceedings Prehist. Soc. XVI. pg. 1-28.

Piggott, Stuart. (1953). Bronze double-axes in the British Isles. Proceedings Prehist. Soc. XIX. pg. 224-226.

Piggott, Stuart. (1965). Ancient Europe from the beginnings of agriculture to classical antiquity. Aldine Publishing Company, Chicago, IL. IS.

Pleiner, Radomir. (1967). The beginning of the Iron Age in ancient Persia. National Technical Museum, Prague.

Pleiner, Radomir. (1969). Experimental smelting of steel in early medieval furnaces. Pamatky archaeologicke. pg. 458-487. IS.

Pleiner, Radomir. (1969). Iron working in ancient Greece. National Technical Museum, Prague.

Pleiner, Radomir. (1979). The technology of three Assyrian artifacts from Khorsabad. J. Near East. Stud. 38(2). pg. 87.

Pleiner, Radomir. (1980). Early iron metallurgy in Europe. In: Wertime, Theodore A. and Muhly, James D., Eds. The Coming of the Age of Iron. Yale University Press, New Haven, CT. IS.

Pleiner, R. and Bjorkman, Judith K. (1974). The Assyrian Iron Age: The history of iron in the Assyrian civilization. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 118. pg. 283-313.

Pole, W. (1888). The life of Sir William Siemens. John Murray, Liverpool, UK.

Pollard, Sidney. (1905). Three centuries of Sheffield steel. Marsh Brothers.

Pulice, Michael. (June 2006). Machines for making bricks in America, 1800-1850. The Chronicle. 59(2). pg. 53-58. IS.

Raftery, Barry, Megaw, Vincent and Rigby, Val. (1995). Sites and sights of the Iron Age: Essays on fieldwork and museum research presented to Ian Mathieson Stead. Oxbow Monograph 56.

Raistrick, Arthur. (1938-39). The south Yorkshire iron industry 1698-1756. Transactions of the Newcomen Society. XIX. pg. 51-86.

Raistrick, Arthur. (1953). Dynasty of iron founders: The Darbys and Coalbrookdale. Longmans, NY, NY.

Raistrick, Arthur. (1972). Industrial archaeology. Eyre Methuen, London, UK.

Randall-MacIver, David. (1925). Villanovans and early Etruscans. Clarendon Press, Oxford.

Randall-MacIver, David. (1927). The Iron Age in Italy. Clarendon Press, Oxford.

Raymond, Robert. (1986). Out of the fiery furnace: The impact of metals on the history of mankind. Pennsylvania State University Press, University Park, PA.

Read, Thomas Thornton. (1932). Mineral technology; fifteenth century. Chicago, IL.

de Réaumur, René Antoine Ferchault. (1722). L'art de convertir le fer forgé en acier. Paris, France. Translated into English as Réaumur's memoirs on steel and iron by Sisco, Anneliese G. in 1956.

• Extracts from this text are reprinted in C. S. Smith's Sources for the history of the science of steel 1532 - 1786.

Rees, Jane. (2004). A directory of Sheffield: Including the manufacturers of the adjacent villages. Tools & Trades History Society, Wiltshire, UK. Reprint of the 1787 edition. IS.

Rees, Jane and Rees, Mark. (1997). Christopher Gabriel and the tool trade in 18th century London. Astragal Press, Mendham, NJ.

Rehder, J.E. (1987). The change from charcoal to coke in iron smelting. Journal of Historical Metallography Society. 21. pg. 37-43.

Rehder, J.E. (1989). Ancient carburization of iron to steel. Archeomaterials. 3. pg. 27-37. IS.

Renfrew, C. (1971). Carbon 14 and the prehistory of Europe. Scient. Amer. 225(4). pg. 63-72.

Renfrew, Colin. (1973). Before civilization: The radiocarbon revolution and prehistoric Europe. Cambridge University Press, London. IS.

Rickard, T.A. (1929). Iron in antiquity. J. Iron Steel Inst. CXX. pg. 329.

Rickard, Thomas A. (1932). Man and metals: A history of mining in relation to the development of civilization. 2 volumes. McGraw-Hill Book Company, NY, NY. Reprinted in one volume in 1974.

Riley, J. (1885). The rise and progress of the Scotch steel trade. Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute. II. pg. 394-403.

Roberts, Kenneth D. (1976). Tools for the trades and crafts: An eighteenth century pattern book: R. Timmins & Sons, Birmingham. Ken Roberts Publishing Co., Fitzwilliam, NH. IS.

Roe, J.W. (1916). English and American tool builders. Yale University Press, New Haven, CT.

Rostoker, W. and Bronson, B. (1990). Pre-industrial iron: Its technology and ethnology. Archeomaterials Monograph No. 1. Private publication, Philadelphia, PA.

Rowlandson, T.S. (1864). History of the steam hammer. Heywood, Manchester, UK.

Ryan, M., Ed. (1978). The origins of metallurgy in Atlantic Europe. Stationery Office, Dublin.

Rybar, Raymond. (September 2005). How to make steel from dirt: Part I of II: The author explains the dividing, grading and converting of the bloom into bar stock. Blade. pg. 72-5. X.

Rybar, Raymond. (October 2005). How to make steel from dirt: Conclusion: The author takes you through the ancient Japanese process known as tama hagane. Blade. pg. 58-65. X.

Salzman, Louis F. (1913). English industries of the middle ages. Houghton Mifflin, New York, NY.

Sandars, N.K. (1978). The sea peoples: Warriors of the ancient Mediterranean. Thames and Hudson, London. IS.

Sanderson, C. (1854/1855). On the manufacture of steel as carried out in this and other countries. Journal of the Society of Arts. 3. pg. 450-460.

Sanderson Bros. & Newbould. (1969-1971). 400 years of iron and steel. Sheffield, UK. http://www.sandersonsteel.com/400_years_of_steel.htm

Schoff, Wilfrid H. (1915). The eastern iron trade of the Roman Empire. Journal of the American Oriental Society. 35. pg. 224-39.

Schubert, John Rudolph Theodore. (1957). The history of the British iron and steel industry from c. 450 B.C. to A.D. 1775. Routledge & Kegan Paul, London, England.

Schubert, H.R. (1951-1953). Early refining of pig iron in England. Transactions of the Newcomen Society. 28. pg. 59-73.

Scientific American. (1976). Readings from Scientific American: Avenues to antiquity. W. H. Freeman and Company, San Francisco, CA. IS.

Scrivenor, H. (1854). History of the iron trade. Longman, Brown, Green, & Longmans, London, UK.

Seebohm, Henry. (1884). On the manufacture of crucible cast steel.JISI. 2. pg. 372-406.

Sestieri, A. M. Bietti. (1973). The metal industry of continental Italy, 13th to 14th century BCE, and its connections with the Aegean. PPS. 39. pg. 383-424.

Siemens, C.W. (1862). On a regenerative gas furnace. Proceedings of the Institute of Mechanical Eng. pg. 21-44.

Siemens, C.W. (1868). On the regenerative gas furnace as applied to the manufacture of cast steel. Journal of the Chemical Society. 6. pg. 279-310.

Siemens, C.W. (1873). On smelting iron and steel. Journal of the Chemical Society. pg. 661-678.

Singer, Charles Joseph, Ed. (1954 - 84). A History of technology. 8 Volumes. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.

• On medieval carpentry tools Singer states: "His main tools ax, adze, hammer, saw and chisel, had been in use for millennia; his bag of tools hardly differed from that of an Egyptian carpenter." (pg. 240).
• [11th century] "Italian craftsmen were practicing inlaying and veneering and using mortise-and-tenon and dove-tail joints long before the craftsmen of northern Europe." (pg. 240).
• "The method of building the Homeric ships was almost the same as that employed today.  The vessels had keel, stem -- and stern-posts, and ribs (frames or timber) covered with outside planking." (pg. 564).
• "It is possible that the brace was in use by Assyrian times, for the Theben hoards contained what appears to be crank pieces and centre bits from a brace. ...Roman bits with square-section shanks are known, though the braces have not so far been traced." (pg. 230).
• Volumes 6-7 ed. by T. I. Williams v. 1. From early times to fall of ancient empires.--v. 2. The Mediterranean civilizations and the Middle Ages, c. 700 B.C. to c. 1500 A.D.--v. 3. From the Renaissance to the industrial revolution, c. 1500-c. 1750.--v. 4. The industrial revolution, c. 1750 to c. 1850.--v. 5. The late nineteenth century, c. 1850 to c. 1900.--v. 6-7. The twentieth century, c. 1900 to c. 1950.--v. 8. Consolidated indexes / compiled by Richard Raper.

Sisco, Anneliese G. (translator). (1956). Réaumur's memoirs on iron and steel. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL.

• See the European Precedents and Early Industrial Revolution bibliography for the citation of the original text by de Réaumur.
• Contains an introduction and notes by Cyril Stanley Smith.
• A xerox of many pages from this text is in stock.

Smiles, Samuel. (1853). Industrial biography: Iron workers and tool makers. John Murray, England. Reprinted in 1967 with an introduction by Rolt, L.T.C., Newton Abbott: David & Charles.

Smith, Cyril S. (1960). A history of metallography: The development of ideas on the structure of metals before 1890. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL.

• This is probably the single most important text on the history of ferrous metallurgy as it pertains to Merigovian swords, Damascus steel, and Japanese swords.
• Indispensable.

Smith, Cyril Stanley, Ed. (1968). Sources for the history of the science of steel 1532 - 1786. The Society for the History of Technology and MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. IS.

• Citations for some of Smith's sources are included in our European Precedents and Early Industrial Revolution bibliography under: Biringuccio, della Porta, Jousse, de Réaumur, Cramer, Grignon, Bergman, de Morveau and Vandermonde.
• Another of Smith's indispensable texts; the definitive study of the evolution of steel production in Europe.

Smith, Cyril S. (1981). A search for structure: Selected essays on science, art, and history. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. W.

Smith, C.S. and Hawthorne, J.G. (1974). Mappae Clavicula. A little key to the world of medieval techniques. Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc. 64. pg. 4.

Smith, Joseph. (1816). Explanation or key, to the various manufactories of Sheffield, with engravings of each article. J. Smith, Sheffield, England. Reprinted in 1975 by the Early American Industries Association, South Burlington, VT. IS.

• We have reproduced several of the engravings in this text in Joseph Smith's information file and the hand saws information file, included in the Hand Tools in History Volumes 6 and 7 of the Museum Publication Series.

Smythe, J. A. (1937/38). Notes on ancient and Roman tin and its alloys with lead. Trans. Newcomen Soc. 18. pg. 255.

Snodgrass, Anthony M. (1971). The dark ages of Greece. Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh, UK.

Snodgrass, Anthony M. (1980). Iron and early metallurgy in the Mediterranean. In: Wertime, Theodore A. and Muhly, James D., Eds. The coming of the age of iron. Yale University Press, New Haven, CT. IS.

Solncev, L.A., Stepanskaja, R.B., Fomin, L.D. and Sramko, B.A. (1969). The earliest objects of cast iron in Eastern Europe. Sov. Arch. (1). pg. 40-47.

Spencer, T. (August 1858). On the manufacture of the Uchatius cast steel. Proceedings of the Institute for Mechanical Eng. pg. 146-154.

Spier, Peter. (1969). Of Windmills and Dikes. Doubleday & Company, Inc. Garden City, NY. IS.

Sramko, B.A. Fomin, L.D. and Solncev, L.A. (1977). The initial stages of the working of iron in East Europe. Sov. Arch. (1). pg. 57-74.

Starley, D. (1999). Determining the technological origins of iron and steel. Journal of Archeological Science. 26. pg. 1127-1133.

Stech-Wheeler, T, Muhly, J.D., Maxwell-Hyslop, K.R., and Maddin, R. (1981). Iron at Taanach and early iron metallurgy in the eastern Mediterranean. American Journal of Archaeology. 85. pg. 245-268.

Steeds, W. (1969). A history of machine tools 1700-1910. Clarendon Press, London.

Steel, David. (1805). The elements and practice of naval architecture. Quarto, London.

Stelzer, G. (1959). Ancient German settlement comprising a bloomery hearth and forge at Salzgitter-Lobmachtersen, Siegerland. Stahl und Eisen. 79. pg. 1201.

Stodart, J. and Faraday, M. (1820). Experiments on the alloys of steel. Quarterly Journal of Science, Literature and the Arts. v. pg. 319-380.

Stone, J. F. S. (1960). Wessex. Vol. 9. In: Glyn, Daniel, Ed. Ancient Peoples and Places. Frederick A. Praeger, Inc., New York, NY. IS.

Straker, Ernest. (1931). Wealden Iron. G. Bell and Sons.

• The principal source of information on the furnaces and forges of the Weald prior to publication of Cleere and Crossley's The Iron Industry of the Weald, 1985.

Sutherland, William. (1711). The shipbuilders assistant, or some essays towards compleating the art of marine architecture. London.

Swank, James M. (1892). History of the manufacture of iron in all ages and particularly in the United States from colonial times to 1891. The American Iron and Steel Association, Philadelphia, PA. IS.

Tebbutt, C. F. (1979). The excavation of three Roman bloomery furnaces at Hartfield, Sussex. Sussex Archaeological Collections. 117. pg. 47-56.

Tebbutt, C. F. and Cleere, H. F. (1973). A Romano-British bloomery at Pippingford, Hartfield. Sussex Archaeological Collections. 111. pg. 27-40.

Tholander, Erik. (1971). Evidence of the use of carburized steel and quench hardening in late Bronze Age Cyprus. Opuscula Atheniensia. 10. pg. 15-22.

Thomas, Emyr. (1999). Coalbrookdale and the Darbys. Sessions Book Trust, York, UK.

Thomas, S.G. and Gilchrist, P.C. (1879). On the elimination of phosphorus. Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute. I. pg. 120-134.

Thurston, Robert H. (1878). History of the growth of the steam engine.D. Appleton & Co., NY.

Timmins, John Geoffrey, Ed. (1984). Workers in metal since 1784. A history of W. & G. Sissons Ltd. Sheffield, UK.

Timmins, S. (1866). The resources, products, and industrial history of Birmingham and the Midland hardware district. London.

Tonsbergh, A. (1982). Iron and steel on the European market in the 17th century. The Historical Metallurgy Group of the Swedish Ironmasters’ Association, Stockholm, Sweden.

Toynbee, Arnold. (1884). Lectures on the Industrial Revolution in England. Rivingtons, London. Reprinted in 1956 by Beacon Press, Boston, MA with the title The Industrial Revolution.

Trinder, Barrie. (1982). The making of the industrial landscape. Dent, London.

Trinder, Barrie. (1996). The industrial archaeology of Shropshire. Phillimore, Chichester, UK.

Trinder, Barrie. (2000). The industrial revolution in Shropshire. Phillimore, Chichester, UK.

Truran, W. (1855). The iron manufacture of Great Britain. E. & F. N. Spon, London, UK.

Turner, Henry. (1862). The manufacture of files. Sheffield Mechanics Institute, Sheffield, UK.

Tweedale, Geoffrey. (November 1985). Sir Robert Hadfield FRS (1858-1940), and the discovery of manganese steel. Notes and Records of the Royal Society. 40. pg. 63-73.

Tweedale, Geoffrey. (1986a). Giants of Sheffield steel: The men who made Sheffield the steel capital of the world. Sheffield City Libraries, Sheffield, England.

Tweedale, Geoffrey. (April 1986b). Metallurgy and technological change: A case study of Sheffield specialty steel and America, 1830-1930. Technology and Culture. 27.

Tylecote, Ronald F. (1959). An early medieval iron smelting site in Weardale. JISI. 192. pg. 26-34.

Tylecote, Ronald F. (1962). Metallurgy in archaeology; a prehistory of metallurgy in the British Isles. Edward Arnold, London.

Tylecote, Ronald F. (June 1970). Early metallurgy in the Near East. Metals and Materials. pg. 285-293.

Tylecote, Ronald F. (1970). Remains of iron working from the Roman legionary base at Carpow, Perthshire. Bull. HMG. 4(1). pg. 3.

Tylecote, Ronald F. (1976). A history of metallurgy. Metals Society, London, UK. IS.

• One of the most important publications on metallurgy.
• Indispensable.

Tylecote, Ronald F. (1980). Furnaces, crucibles, and slags. In: Wertime, Theodore A. and Muhly, James D., Eds. The coming of the age of iron. Yale University Press, New Haven, CT. IS.

Tylecote, Ronald F. (1982). Metallurgy in Punic and Roman Carthage. In: Domergue, C. Ed., Mines et fonderies antiques de la Gaule. CNRS (Natioinal Cente for Scientific Research, Paris. pg. 259-278.

Tylecote, Ronald F. (1985). The early history of the blast-furnace in Europe; a case of east-west contact? Medieval Iron in Society, Norberg Colloq. pg.158-73.

Tylecote, Ronald F. (1986). The prehistory of metallurgy in the British Isles. The Institute of Metals, London, UK. IS.

Tylecote, Ronald F. (1987). The early history of metallurgy in Europe. Longmans Green, London, England and New York, NY. X.

Tylecote, Ronald F. (1991). Iron in the Industrial Revolution. In: Day, J. and Tylecote , R.F. Eds. The Industrial Revolution in Metals. The Institute of Metals, London, England.

Tylecote, Ronald F. and Gilmour, B.J.J. (1986). The metallography of early ferrous edge tools and edged weapons. British Archeology Reports No. 155, Archeopress, Oxford, England.

Ure, Andrew. (1835). The philosophy of manufactures. Cornmarket Press, London, England.

Usher, Abbott Payson. (1905). An introduction to the industrial history of England. George G. Harrap & Co., Ltd., London.

Vandermonde, Charles Auguste, Berthollet, Claude Louis and Monge, Gaspard. (1788). Mémoire sur le fer consideré dans ses différens états métalliques. In: Mémoires de l'Académie Royale des Sciences. Paris, France.

• Extracts from this text are reprinted in C. S. Smith's Sources for the history of the science of steel 1532 - 1786.

Wagner, D.B. (1993). Iron and steel in ancient China. Brill, Leiden, The Netherlands.

Wainwright, G. A. (1944). Early tin in the Aegean. Antiq. XVIII. pg. 57-64.

Waldbaum, Jane C. (1978). Bronze to iron: The transition from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age in the Eastern Mediterranean. Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology LIV. Paul Åströms Förlag, Goteborg, Sweden.

Waldbaum, Jane C. (1980). The first archaeological appearance of iron and the transition to the Iron Age. In: Wertime, Theodore A. and Muhly, James D., Eds. The coming of the age of iron. Yale University Press, New Haven, CT. IS.

Walton, Mary. (1948). Sheffield: Its story and its achievements. Sheffield Telegraph, Sheffield, UK.

Wanklyn, M.D.G. (1982). Industrial development in the Ironbridge Gorge before Abraham Darby. West Midlands Studies. 15. pg. 3-7.

Wattenmaker, Richard J., Firch, Jan and Joyaux, Alain. (1981). European tools from the 17th to the 19th century: Woodworking, metalworking and related trades. Flint Institute of Arts, Flint, MI. IS.

Wayman, Michael L. (2000). The ferrous metallurgy of early clocks and watches: Studies in post medieval steel. Occasional Paper Number 136. British Museum, London, England. IS.

• Among the most useful of all references on ferrous metallurgy.
• This publication was encountered by the editor while doing research at the British Museum in January of 2005 and was very helpful in providing clues to the key role that German steel played as a source for the steel used in many an edge tool wielded by New England shipwrights prior to the widespread availability of American made cast steel tools after 1865.

Wertime, Theodore A. (1962). The coming of the age of steel. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL. IS.

• An important basic reference.  See below.

Wertime, Theodore A. (1964). Asian influences on European metallurgy. Techn. Cult. 5. pg. 391-397.

Wertime, Theodore A. (1973). The beginnings of metallurgy: A new look. Science. 182. pg. 875-887.

Wertime, Theodore A. (1980). The pyrotechnologic background. In: Wertime, Theodore A. and Muhly, James D., Eds. The coming of the age of iron. Yale University Press, New Haven, CT. IS.

Wertime, Theodore A. and Muhly, James D., Eds. (1980). The coming of the age of iron. Yale University Press, New Haven, CT. IS.

• Complements Wertime (1962) as an essential source of information on ferrous metallurgy.

Wertime, Theodore A. and Wertime, Steven F., Eds.(1982). Early pyrotechnology: The evolution of the first fire-using industries. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC. IS.

• Some very interesting essays.
• A great resource for teachers.

Wheeler, Tamara S. and Maddin, Robert. (1980). Metallurgy and ancient man. In: Wertime, Theodore A. and Muhly, James D., Eds. The coming of the age of iron. Yale University Press, New Haven, CT. IS.

Whittemore, Laurence F. (1947). Yankee ingenuity! Then and now. The Newcomen Society of England American Branch, NY, NY. IS.

Whitworth, J. (1840). On plane metallic surfaces, and the proper mode of preparing them.

• This paper is republished in Whitworth (1870).

Whitworth, J. (1870). Miscellanous papers on mechanical subjects. G. Falkner, Manchester, England.

Wiener, M.J. (1981). English culture and the decline of the industrial spirit 1850-1980. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.

Willets, Arthur. (1987). The Black Country nail trade. Dudley Leisure Services, Dudley, UK.

Williams, A.R. (1976). Ancient steel from Egypt. Journal of Archaeological Science. 3. pg. 294-301.

Williams, A.R. (1977a). Methods of manufacture of sword blades in the middle ages. Gladius. 13. pg. 75-101.

Williams, A.R. (1977b). Roman arms and armour. J. Arch Sci. 4. pg. 77-87.

Williams, A.R. (1978). Manufacture of armor in 15th century Italy, illustrated by six helmets in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Metropolitan Museum Journal. 13. pg. 131-142.

Williams, A.R. (1979). A technical study of some armour of Henry VIII and his contemporaries. Archeaologia. 106. pg. 157-166. W.

Williams, A.R. and de Reuck, A. (1995). The royal armoury at Greenwich, 1515-1649, A history of its technology. Royal Amouries Monograph 4, Royal Armouries, London, England.

Wiltzen, T.S. and Wayman, M.L. (1999).  Steel files as chronological markers in North American fur trade sites. Archaeometry. 41. pg. 117-135. W.

Wing, Anne and Wing, Donald. (date unknown). The case for Francis Purdew or granfurdeus disputatus. Self-published? X.

• A copy of this important publication is on exhibit in a main exhibition hall case at the Davistown Museum.

Wing, Anne and Wing, Donald. (2005). Early planemakers of London: Recent discoveries in the Tallow Chandlers and the Joiners Companies. The Mechanik's Workbench, Marion, MA. IS(2).

• See annotations in the Tool Trades: planemakers bibliography.

Wood, Charles B., III. (1975). Early technology, primarily nineteenth century. Charles B. Wood III, Inc., South Woodstock, CT. IS.

Wood, Michael. (1985). In search of the Trojan War. Facts on File Publications, NY, NY. IS.

Woodbury, R.S. (1961). History of the lathe to 1850. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.

Wynne, E.J. and Tylecote, R.F. (1958). An experimental investigation into primitive iron smelting technique. Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute. 190. pg. 339-48.

Zimmer, George Frederic. (1916). The use of meteoric iron by primitive man. Journal of British Iron and Steel Institute. XCIV. pg. 343.