Environmental History
Norumbega bioregion: Changes in the land
This section is under construction

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Paradigm I: Geological and Environmental Changes

Allaby, Michael, Ed. (1994). The concise Oxford dictionary of ecology. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. IS.

Barnhardt, Walter A., Belknap, Daniel F., and Kelley, Joseph T. (1997). Stratigraphic evolution of the inner continental shelf in response to late quaternary relative sea-level change, northwestern gulf of Maine.  Geological Society of America Bulletin 109 (5) Boulder, CO., pg. 317-320.

Barnhardt, Walter A., Gehrels, W. Roland, Belknap, Daniel F., and Kelley, Joseph T. (1995). Late quaternary relative sea-level change in the western gulf of Maine: Evidence for a migrating glacial forebulge. Geology 23(4), Boulder, Co. pg 317-320.

Baron, William R. and Smith, David C. (1996) Growing Season Parametre Reconstructions for New England Using Killing Frost Records, 1697-1947. Maine Agricultural and Forest Experiment Station. Bulletin 846. University of Maine, Orono, ME. pg. 30.

Belknap, Daniel F., Shipp, R. C., Stuckenrath, Robert., Kelly, Joseph T. and Borns, Howard W. (1989). Holocene sea-level changes in coastal Maine. In: Neotectonics of Maine. Maine Geological Survey, Augusta, ME.

Bennett, Dean B. (1996). The forgotten nature of New England. Down East Books, Camden, ME. IS.

Borns, H.W., Jr. (1973). Late Wisconsin fluctuations of the Laurentide ice sheet in southern and eastern New England. Geological Society of America, Memoir. 136. pg. 37-45.

Bradstreet, Theodore E., and Davis, Ronald B. (1975) Mid-postglacial enviornments in New England with emphasis on Maine. Arctic Anthropology 8(2). University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, WI. pg. 7-22.

Climate Change Research Center. New England's changing climate, weather and air quality. Institute for the Study of Earth, Oceans and Space, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH.

Commoner, Barry. (1971). The closing circle: Nature, man & technology. Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. Reprinted in 1981 by Bantam Books, Inc., NY, NY. IS.

Cramer, Deborah. (2001). Oceans and everything in them: Great waters: An Atlantic passage. W.W. Norton & Co., NY, NY.

Darling, Frasier and Milton, John P. (1966). Future environments of North America: Transformation of a continent. Natural History Press, Garden City, New York. IS-EH.

Darling, Lois and Darling, Louis. (1968). A place in the sun: Ecology and the living world. William Morrow and Company, NY, NY. IS.

Davis, Margaret (1967) Late Glacial Climate in Northern United States: A Comparison of New England and the Great Lakes Region. Quarternary Paleoecology. ed by Cushing, Edward J. and Wright, Herbert, E. Yale University Press, New Haven, CT. pg. 11-43.

Davis, Margaret (1969) Palynological and Environmental History during the Quaternary Period. American Scientist 57 (3). pg. 317-322.

Davis, Ronald B., Bradstreet, Theodore, E., Stuckenrath, Robert, Jr. and Borns, Harold W., Jr. (1975). Vegetation and associated environments during the past 14,000 years near Moulton Pond, Maine. Quaternary Research. 5, Cambridge, England. pg. 435-466. X.

• "Comparisons of the Moulton Pond results with late-glacial pollen sequences elsewhere in eastern United States and adjacent Canada reveal a lack of synchroneity in vegetational changes casting doubt on claims of major broad-scale climatic shifts over the entire area." (pg. 435).
• "The tundra period at Moulton Pond ended with a transition of a few hundred years to partly open, relatively xeric forests of low diversity dominated by white pine, oak, and birch trees  There was no intervening boreal forest." (pg. 435).
• "From about 7100 y.a. until settlement by Europeans 200 y.a., the forests were closed.  A major decline of conifers centering about 4700 y.a. was followed by maxima of mesic hardwoods about a thousand years later.  In the most recent 2000 yr, the pollen record suggests greater environmental severity, evidenced by increasing spruce." (pg. 435).
• "Zone III, The Hardwood-Conifer Period.  Zone III extends from about 4700 to 200 y.a.  It represents a period of hardwood-dominated mixed forests.  All of the taxa found in the modern pollen assemblages from the area had by this time invaded the area, and therefore changes in plant populations in this zone were probably due to causes other than immigration of new plant taxa." (pg. 454).

Davis, Ronald B., and Jacobson, George L., Jr. (1985). Late glacial and early Holocene landscapes in northern New England and adjacent areas of Canada. Quaternary Research 23, Cambridge, England. pg. 341-368.

Dickerson, Scott. (2002). To save a river. Coastal Mountains Land Trust and Aperture, Camden, ME.

• The river is the Ducktrap, which flows into Penobscot Bay.  This text contains an ecological description of the watershed and how the land around it has now been protected.

Efron, Edith. (1984). The apocalyptics: Cancer and the big lie. Simon and Schuster, NY, NY. IS-EH.

Ehrlich, Paul R. () Mechanics of nature, the living world around us and how it works.

El-Hinnawai, Essam and Hashmi, Manzur H. (1982). Global environmental issues: United Nations environment programme. Volume 7. Tycooly International Publishing LTD., Dublin, Ireland. IS-EH.

Eves, Jamie H. (1992). "Shrunk to a comparative rivulet": Deforestation, stream flow, and rural milling in 19th-century Maine. Technology and Culture: The International Quarterly of the Society for the History of Technology. January 1992, Volume 33, Number 1. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL. IS.

Fairbridge, Rhodes W. (1960). Recent world-wide sea-level changes and their possible significance to New England archaeology. Bulletin of the Massachusetts Archaeological Society, 21(3-4). pg. 49-51.

Flannery, Tim. (date unknown). The eternal frontier: An ecological history of North America and its peoples. Atlantic Monthly Press.

• "Throughout the world, large mammals and birds disappeared coincident with or shortly after the first evidence of human settlement.  ...Clinching the argument is the recent discovery of a frozen mammoth on Wrangell Island in the Arctic Ocean 125 miles north of Siberia.  The mammoth died only 4,500 years ago, which is just when the first humans reached Wrangell, and about 10,000 years after the last Siberian mammoth perished." (Terborgh, John, The New York Review of Books, Sept. 20, 2001, XLVIII(14), pg. 45-46).
• "Elsewhere in the world, except in Africa and southern Asia, where man or his evolutionary forebears have been present for at least the last 1.5 million years, the megafauna swiftly disappeared as soon as humans appeared on the scene: 50,000 years ago in Australia, 13,000 years ago in South America, 6,000 years ago in the Caribbean islands, 1,200 years ago or thereabouts in Madagascar, New Zealand, and other Pacific islands, including Hawaii.  It is a disturbing fact to face, but the evidence overwhelmingly implies that we humans ate our way through most of the earth's largest birds and mammals long before the invention of gunpowder." (Terborgh, John, The New York Review of Books, Sept. 20, 2001, XLVIII(14), pg. 46).

Gawler, S.C. (1991). Natural landscapes of Maine: A classification of ecosystems and natural communities. Maine Natural Areas Program, Augusta, ME.

Gehrels, Roland W., Belknap, Daniel F., Kelley, Joesph T. (1996). Integrated high-precision analyses of Holocene relative sea-level changes: lessons from the coast of Maine. Geological Society of America Bulletin, vol. 108, no. 9.

Gordon, Robert B. (1983). History of sea level changes along the Connecticut shore. In Connecticut Archaeology: Past, Present, and Future. Occasional Papers in Anthropology, Ed. by Dewar, R.E., Feder, K.L., and Poirier, D.A. Univeristy of Connecticut, Department of Anthropology, Storrs, CT. pg. 61-78.

Gordon, Wendy. (1984). A citizen’s handbook on groundwater protection. Natural Resources Defense Council, NY, NY. IS(2)-EH.

Heck, W.W. et al. (1982). Ozone Impacts on the Productivity of Selected Crops. Effects of Air Pollution on Farm Comodities. Izaak Walton League of America, Washington, D.C.

Hites, Ronald, et. al. (2004). Global assessment of contaminants in farmed science. Science, Volume 303.

Johnson, Arthur and Siccama, Thomas. (1989) Decline of Red Spruce in the High-Elevation Forests of the Northeastern United States. Air Pollution's Toll on Forests and Crops, edited by Jamesd macKenzie and Mohamed El-Ashry. Yale Univeristy Press, New Haven, CT.

Jorgenson, Neil. (1977) A Guide to New England's Landscape. Globe Penquot, Chester, CT. pg. 142-156,179-183.

Kellogg, D.C. (1991). Prehistoric landscapes, paleoenvironments, and archaeology of western Muscongus Bay, Maine. Thesis (Ph.D.), University of Maine, Orono, ME.

Kendall, David L. (1987). Glaciers & granite, a guide to Maine's landscape & geology. Down East Books, Camden, ME.

Kolbert, Elizabeth. (2006). Field notes from a catastrophe: Man, nature and climate change. Bloomsbury USA, NY, NY. IS.

Kormondy, Edward J. (1969). Concepts of ecology. Prentice Hall Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ. IS-EH.

Krupp, Fred, and Horn, Miriam. (2008). Earth: The sequel: The race to reinvent energy and stop global warming. W.H. Norton.

McDonough , William, and Michael Braungart. Cradle to Cradle: Remaking the Way we Make Things. New York: North Point Press, 2002.

Miller, Judith, Engelberg, Stephen and Broad, William. (2001). Biological weapons and America's secret war: Germs. Simon & Schuster, NY, NY. IS-EH.

National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program. (1987). Interim Assessment; The Causes and Effects of Acid Deposition, Vol. 2, Emissions and Control. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.

National Research Council of the United States and the Royal Society of Canada. (1985). The Great Lakes water quality agreement: An evolving instrument for ecosystem management. National Academy Press, Washington, DC. IS.

Novacer, Michael J. (2001). The biodiversity crisis, losing what counts. American Museum of Science, NY.

Odum, Eugene P. (1975). Ecology. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc, NY, NY. IS-EH.

Odum, Eugene P. (1983). Basic ecology. Saunders College Publishing, NY, NY. IS.

Odum, Eugene P. (1993). Ecology and our endangered life support systems. Sunderland, MA.

Ogden, Joan M. and Williams, Robert H. (October 1989). Solar hydrogen: Moving beyond fossils fuels. World Resources Institute, Washington, DC. IS.

Pearson, R.G. and Percy, K.E. (1990). The 1990 Canadian Long-Range Transport of Air Pollution and Acid Deposition Report, Part V, Terrestrial Effects. Federal/Provincial Research and Monitoring Coordinating Commettee, Ottowa, Canada.

Sanger, David. (1985). Sea level rise in Passamaquoddy Bay: Archaeology and sediment cores. Open file no. 85-73, Maine Geological Survey.

Savonis, Michael, Burkett, Virginia R., Potter, Joanne R. Impacts of climate change and variability on transportation systems and infrastructure [electronic resource] : Gulf Coast study, phase I : / report by the U.S. Climate Change Science Program and the Subcommittee on Global Change Research .

Schnitker, D. (1974). Postglacial emergence of the Gulf of Maine. Geological Society of American Bulletin. 85. pg. 491-494.

Schwartz, Peter and Randall, Doug (October 2003). Imagining the Unthinkable: An abrupt climate change scenario and its implications for United States national security. EMS, Washington, D.C. IS.

Selley, Richard C. (1970). Ancient sedimentary environments: A brief survey. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY. IS.

Shelford, Victor E. (1963). The ecology of North America. Urbana, IL.

Stuiver, M. and Borns, H.W., Jr. (1975). Late quaternary marine invasion in Maine: Its chronology and associated crustal movement. Geological Society of America Bulletin. 86. pg. 99-104.

Thompson, Kenneth. (December 1980). Forest and climate change in America: Some early views. Climatic Change 3 (1). pg. 47-64.

Vine, Edward, Crawley, Drury and Centolella, Paul, Eds. (1991). Energy efficiency and the environment: Forging the link. American Council for an Energy-Efficient Environment, Washington, DC. IS.

Weiner, Jonathan. (1990). The next 100 years: shaping the fate of our living earth.

Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. (n.d.). Abstracts of papers submitted in 1976 for publication. Technical Report WHOI-77-3, Woods Hole, MA. Unpublished manuscript. IS.

• The Museum also has in stock the abstracts from 1978 (WHOI-79-37), 1980 (WHOI-81-36), 1981 (WHOI-82-9), 1984 (WHOI-85-9), 1985 (WHOI-86-2), 1986 (WHOI-87-6) and 1987 (WHOI-88-14).

Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. (April 1979). Bibliography of technical reports: 1978. Technical Report WHOI-79-31, Woods Hole, MA. IS.

• The Museum also has in stock the bibliographies from 1983 (WHOI-84-1), 1984 (WHOI-85-2) and 1985 (WHOI-86-4).

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Paradigm II: Agricultural and Forestry Practices

Berry, Wendell. (1978). The unsettling of America: Culture & agriculture. Avon, NY, NY. IS.

Cronon, William (1983). Changes in the land: Indians, colonists, and the ecology of New England. Hill and Wang, NY, NY.

• Among the most important contemporary books pertaining to Native Americans in Maine (and New England.)  This text provides essential background information for anyone interested in the history of coastal Maine and the Native Americans who once inhabited Norumbega.
• We acknowledge using part of the title of this text for this section of the bibliographies of The Davistown Museum.

Davis, Ronald B. (1966). Spruce-fir forests of the coast of Maine. Ecological Monographs. 36. pg. 79-94.

Department of Health and Human Services. (March 1998). Action levels for poisonous or deleterious substances in human food and animal feed. Department of Health and Human Services., Food and Drug Administration, Washington, DC.

• This booklet can be ordered from: Industry Activities Staff (HFS-565), CFSAN/FDA, 200 C Street, S.W., Washington, DC 20204.

Devall, Bill and Sessions, George. (1985). Deep ecology. Gibbs M. Smith, Inc., Salt Lake City, UT. IS.

Dobbs, David and Ober Richard. (1995). The northern forest. Chelsea Green Pub. Co., White River Jct., VT.

Friedman, Thomas L. (2008). Hot, Flat, and Crowded: Why We Need a Green Revolution--and How It Can Renew America. Farrar, Straus, and Giroux. NY.

Friedman, Thomas L. (2006). The world is flat 3.0: a brief history of the twenty-first century. Farrar. Straus and Giroux. NY.

Friedman, Thomas L. (2000). The Lexus and the olive tree: understanding globalization. Anchor reprint edition. NY.

Hardin, Garrett. (1968). The tragedy of the commons. Science. 162. pg. 1243-1248.

Hearne, Shelley A. (1984). Harvest of unknowns: Pesticide contamination in imported foods. Natural Resources Defense Council, Inc. IS.

Hoopes, Roy. (1962). A report on fallout in your food with tables and illustrations. The New American Library, NY, NY. IS.

International Atomic Energy Agency. (1972). Radiotracer studies of chemical residues in food and agriculture: Proceedings of a combined panel and research coordination meeting, organized by the joint FAO/IAEA Division of Atomic Energy in Food and Agriculture, and held in Vienna, Austria, 25 - 29 October 1971. IAEA, Vienna, Austria. IS.

Lindroth, Seppo and Niskane, Aimo. (1978). Comparison of potential patulin hazard in home-made and commercial apple products. Journal of Food Science. 43. pg. 446-448.X.

Lorimer, Craig. (1977). The presettlement forest and natural disturbance cycle of northeastern Maine. Ecology. 58(1). pg. 139-148.

Klyza, Christopher McGrory and Trombulak, Stephen C. Eds. (1994). The future of the northern forest. Middlebury College Press, Middlebury, VT.

MacKenzie, James J. and El-Ashry, Mohamed T. (September 1988). Ill winds: Airborne pollution's toll on trees and crops. World Resources Institute, Washington, DC. IS.

Marchand, Peter J. (1987). North woods: An inside look at the nature of forests in the Northeast. Appalachian Mountain Club,
Boston, MA.

McManamon, Francis P. (1982). Prehistoric land use on outer Cape Cod. Journal of Field Archaeology. 9(1). pg. 1-20.

Muir, Diana. (2000). Reflections in Bullough's Pond: Economy and ecosystem in New England. University Press of New England, Hanover, NH. IS.

• This important book, which combines ethnohistory, ecology and industrial history into a paean about life in New England, is closely related to and often cites William Cronon's Changes in the Land.  Muir traces the roots of the Industrial Revolution in New England to the Revolutionary War era scarcity of land, lack of resources, burgeoning population, Puritan work ethic and willingness to take risks.  What resulted was the consequent inventive implementation of mass production techniques by Yankee ingenuity as an alternative to the restrictive economic opportunities in an agrarian society with no option for further growth.
• For additional comments see the annotations on this book in the Industrial Revolution bibliography as well as in Native Americans in Maine secondary contemporary ethnohistory and research bibliography.

Nicholas, George P. (1991). Places and spaces: Changing patterns of wetland use in southern New England. Man in the Northeast. 42. pg. 75-98.

Niering, W. and Warren, R. (1980). Vegetation patterns and processes in New England salt marshes. Bioscience. 30. pg. 301-307.

Postel, Sandra and Heise, Lori. (1988). Worldwatch paper 83: Reforesting the earth. Worldwatch Institute. IS-EH.

Potzger, J.E. and Friesner, R.C. (1948). Forests of the past along the coast of southern Maine. Butler University Botanical Studies. 8. pg. 178-203.

Rolde, Neil. (2001). The interrupted forest: A history of Maine's wildlands. Tilbury House, Gardiner, ME.

Russell, Howard S. (1976). A long, deep furrow: Three centuries of farming in New England. University Press of New England, Hanover, NH. IS.

Smith, David and Bridges Anne. (1982). Salt marsh dykes as a factor in eastern Maine agriculture. Maine Historical Society Quarterly. 24(4). pg. 219-226.

Smith, David, Konrad, Victor, et. al. (1989). Salt marshes as a factor in the agriculture of northeastern North America. Agricultural History 63(2). pg. 270-294.

Soros, George. (2008). The new paradigm for financial markets: the credit crisis of 2008 and what it means. PublicAffairs, Perseus Books Group. Philadelphia, PA.

Strum, Carol Van. (1983). A bitter fog: Herbicides and human rights, Sierra Club Books, San Francisco, CA. IS-EH.

Thomson, Betty Flanders. (1958). The changing face of New England. Macmillan, NY, NY.

Thorne, Sarah and Sundquist, Dan. (April 2001). New Hampshire's vanishing forests: Conversion, fragmentation and parcelization of forests in the granite state. Society for the Protection of New Hampshire Forests, 54 Portsmouth Street, Concord, NH.

Walker, Erik B. Undermining science: suppression and distortion in the Bush administration. Trial.

Wilson, Harold F. (1935). The rise and decline of the sheep industry in northern New England. Agricultural History. 9(1). pg. 25.

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Paradigm III: The Industrial Revolution and Chemical Fallout

Overview

Rapid changes are now occurring with respect to increasing levels of chemical fallout contamination in many biotic and terrestrial environments. Increasing contamination levels are also accompanied by decreasing effectiveness of environmental organizations dedicated to mitigating the spread and increase of chemical fallout in the environment. The State of Maine's 1997 Fish Consumption Advisories remains an important documentation of the impact of this fallout within the State of Maine almost a decade after it was issued. The following citations will allow visiting readers to access contemporary OpEds expressing the current frustration of the environmental movement. A topic specific bibliography for Paradigm III follows these general citations. The State of Maine is one of the few states making an attempt to alert it's citizens to the hazards of chemical fallout; their advisory will remain at the beginning of this section of our Environmental History Bibliographies due to its symbolic importance.
 

Maine Department of Human Services. (1997). Maine 1997 fish consumption advisories. Handout by the Bureau of Health, Maine Department of Human Services, Augusta, ME.

• General Consumption Advisory for ALL Inland Surface Waters Due to Mercury Contamination
• Pregnant women, nursing mothers, women who may become pregnant, and children less than 8 years old, should NOT EAT warm water fish species bass, pickerel, perch, sunfish, crappie) caught in any of Maine's inland surface waters; Consumption of cold waters species (trout, salmon, smelt, cusk) should he limited to I meal per month. The consumption of older cold water fish (e.g., a large lake trout) should be avoided.
• All other individuals should limit consumption of warm water species caught in any of Maine's inland surface waters to 2 to 3 meals per month. People who eat large (older) fish are advised to use the lower limit of 2 meals per month. There is no consumption limits for cold water species.
• Specific Freshwater Fish Consumption Advisories
• In addition to the general statewide advisory due to mercury contamination of fish, other chemicals (PCBs and dioxins) in fish caught in specific waters of the state have been found at levels sufficient to prompt consumption advisories for these waters. The consumption advisories listed below are more restrictive than the statewide mercury advisory for the general population, and may be more stringent than the statewide advisory intended to protect the developing fetus, infant and young child.

ADVISORY AREA		MAXIMUM CONSUMPTION LEVEL	CHEMICALS OF CONCERN
Water Body	SEGMENT	[All Species]
All Waters	Statewide	SEE DESCRIPTION ABOVE	mercury
Androscoggin River	Gilead to Merrymeeting Bay	6 meals per year	PCBs & dioxins
Kennebec River	Madison to Edwards Dam (Augusta)	1 to 2 meals per month*	PCBs & dioxins
	Edwards Dam (Augusta) to The Chops (Bath)	NO CONSUMPTION (freshwater fish only)	PCBs & dioxins
Penobscot River	Below Lincoln	1 to 2 meals per month*	PCBs & dioxins
Salmon Falls River	Below Berwick	6 meals per year	PCBs & dioxins
East Br. Sebasticook R.	Below Corinna	1 meal per month	PCBs & dioxins
West Br. Sebasticook R.	Below Hartland	2 meals per month	PCBs & dioxins
Little Madawaska River and all tributaries	Madawaska Dam to Grimes Mill Road	NO CONSUMPTION	PCBs
Green Pond, Chapman Pit, Greenlaw Brook	All waters (on former Loring Air Force Base)	NO CONSUMPTION	PCBs
Red Brook	All Waters (Scarborough)	6 meals per year	PCBs

* People who eat large (older) fish are advised to use the lower consumption level, as older fish tend to accumulate PCBs, dioxins, and mercury.

• Marine Fish and Shellfish Consumption Advisories
• Lobster Tomalley: Pregnant women, nursing mothers, and women who may become pregnant should NOT EAT tomalley (the green substance found in the body of the lobster). All others should limit consumption of lobster tomalley to 1 meal per month. A tomalley meal is eating the tomalley from one lobster.
• Striped Bass: Pregnant women, nursing mothers, worn en who may become pregnant, and children less than 8 years old, are advised to limit consumption of striped bass to I meal per month. All others should limit consumption to 2 to 3 meals per month, with the lower limit applying to those consuming large striped bass.
• Bluefish: Consumption of bluefish should be limited to one fish meal per month.

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Paradigm III: The Industrial Revolution and Chemical Fallout
(bibliography continued)

Arctic Monitoring And Assessment Programme (AMAP). (2002). AMAP Assessment 2002: persistant organic pollutants in the Arctic. Oslo. IS

Center for Disease Control. (March 2001). National report on human exposure to environmental chemicals. CDC, National Center for Environmental Health, Atlanta, GA. http://www.cdc.gov/nceh/dls/report/default.htm

Counihan, Martin. (1981). A dictionary of energy. Routledge & Kegan Paul, Boston, MA. IS.

Deffeyes, Kenneth S. (2001). Hubbert's peak: The impending world oil shortage. Princeton University Press, 2001, Princeton, NJ.

Environment Information Center. (1980). Toxic substances sourcebook: Series: 2. EIC Co., NY, NY. IS.

Eriksson, Johan, et. al. (February 2003). Photochemical transformations of Tetrabromobisphenol A and related phenols in water. Chemosphere. 54(1). pg. 117-26.

European Union. (2002). Directive 2002/95/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 January 2003 on the restriction of the use of certain hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment. Official Journal of the European Union.

EWG (Environmental Working Group) has all their reports online in an archive on PCB's, mercury, fire retardants, teflon, arsenic, etc.

Fisher, Douglas. (March 10, 2005). The great experiment. Inside Bay Area.

Gibson, Pamela Reed. (2000). Multiple chemical sensitivity: A survival guide. New Harbinger Pub.

Goldberg, Edward D. et. al. (1978). The mussel watch. Environment Conservation. 5(2). pg. 101-125.

• "Environmental research has suggested that some bivalves may be valuable as sentinel organisms for indicating levels of pollutants in coastal marine waters.  These organisms concentrate numerous pollutants to a marked degree over sea-water levels.  Several species thus 'bioaccumulate' some, or even most, members of the four identified categories of marine pollutants: heavy-metals, transuranic elements, petroleum hydrocarbons, and halogenated hydrocarbons.  A given species, however, may have unique enrichment factors for any or all of these groups of substances." (pg. 101).
• "With this background, the Mussel Watch concept was evolved, and in 1976 a surveillance of U.S. coastal regions for their pollutant contents was initiated, utilizing species of mussels (Mytilus) and oysters (Ostrea or Crassostrea) as surveillance organisms." (pg. 101).
• In the following bibliography, The Davistown Museum combines petroleum hydrocarbons and halogenated hydrocarbons under the subheading of chlorinated hydrocarbons.  Transuranic elements come under the bibliographic subtopic of anthropogenic radioactivity, which in practical terms also includes non-transuranics such as ⁶⁰Co and ¹³⁷Cs.
• The initial program of the U.S. Mussel Watch involved the Scripps Institution of Oceanography at La Jolla working on contract with the U.S. EPA in a three year program, which was never developed to its full potential due to a combination of funding cutbacks and anti-environmental political pressures.  The program, while never realizing its full potential for documenting environmental change and environmental degradation at least highlighted the important role of shellfish such as mussels and oysters as important bioindicators for changes in the marine environment.  A number of other citations in this environmental history bibliography, though not part of the U.S. Mussel Watch, utilize these bioindicators to document contamination from source points such as the Maine Yankee Atomic Power Company.

Gulf Watch. (2003). Monitoring chemical contaminants in Gulf of Maine coastal waters. www.gulfofmaine.org.

Hearne, Shelley A. (1984). Harvest of unknowns. Natural Resources Defense Council, Inc. San Francisco, CA. www.nrdc.org IS.

Hites, Ronald, Foran, Jeffery A., Carpenter, David O., Hamilton, M. Coreen, Knuth, Barbara A. and Schwager, Steven J. (January 9, 2004). Global assessment of organic contaminants in farmed salmon. Science. 303(5655). pg. 226.

• The Institute for Health and Environment, University at Albany has an analysis of this article and a pdf file of the full text online at: http://www.albany.edu/ihe/salmonstudy/index.html.

Kay, Jane. (July 10, 2003). Widely used flame retardant feared to be a health hazard found in women’s breast tissue, fish – bill would ban it. San Francisco Chronicle.

Klare, Michael T. (2001). Resource wars: The new landscape of global conflict. Metropolitan Books, May 2001.

Law, Robin, et. al. (September 2003). Levels and trends of polybrominated diphenylethers and other brominated flame retardants in wildlife. Environmental International. 29(6). pg. 757-70.

Lee, Robert G. M., et. al. (2004). PBDEs in the atmosphere of three locations in Western Europe. Environmental Science and Technology. 38(3).

Long, Michael E. (July 2002). Half life: The lethal legacy of America's nuclear waste. National Geographic. pg. 2-33. IS.

Miller, Morton W. and Berg, George G., Eds. (1969). Chemical fallout: current research on persistent pesticides. Charles C. Thomas, Publisher, Springfield, IL. IS.

• Counterpart of Rachel Carson's Silent Spring, this important publication, one of the first descriptions of the hemispheric spread of chemical fallout, provides essential background information for anyone interested in ecological change in the Norumbega bioregion.

Mlot, Christine. (February 1985). Multimedia maneuvers: Shifting tactics for controlling shifting pollutants. Science News. 127. pg. 124-127. X.

Morris, Steven, et. al. (2004). Distribution and fate of HBCD and TBBPA brominated flame retardants in North Sea estuaries and aquatic food webs. Environmental Science and Technology. 38(21).

Mott, Lawrie and Broad, Martha. (March 15, 1984). Pesticides in food: What the public needs to know. Natural Resources Defense Council, Inc., San Francisco, CA. IS.

Moyers, Bill. (2005). Welcome to Doomsday. New York Review of Books, NY, Vol 52, Number 5, March 24, 2005. IS.

National Institute of Health Sciences. (June 2002). Tetrabromobisphenol A: review of toxicological literature.

Oaks, JL, M. Gilbert, MZ, Virani, RT, et. al. (2004). Doclofenac residues as the cause of vulture population decline in Pakistan. Nature. 427 (6975). pg. 630-3.

Occupational Safety and Health Administration. (2006). A guide to the globally harmonized system of classification and labeling of chemicals (GHS). www.osha.gov/dsg/hazcom/ghs.html.

Onstot J, Ayling R, Stanley J. (1987). Characterization of HRGC/MS Unidentified Peaks from the Analysis of Human Adipose Tissue. Volume 1: Technical Approach. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Office of Toxic Substances (560/6-87-002a).

Organization of Economic Co-operation and Development. (2004). Perfluorooctane Sulfonate (PFOS) and related chemical products. www.oecd.org/document/58/0,2340,fr_2649_34375_238437_1-1-1-1,00.html.

Organization of Economic Co-operation and Development. (2003). Voluntary approaches for environmental policy. Paris. www.oecd.org/document/58/0,2340,fr_2649_34375_238437_1-1-1-1,00.html

Puckett, Jim and Smith, Ted, eds. (2002). Exporting harm: the high-tech trashing of Asia. Seattle: Basel Action Network. Silicon Valley Toxics Coalition. San Jose, CA.

Randolph, Theron G. (1962). Human ecology and susceptibility to the chemical environment. Charles C. Thomas, Publisher, Springfield, IL. IS.

Rivlin, Michael A. (Fall 2001). Northern exposure. Onearth. 23(3). pg. 14-20. IS.

Shellenberger, Michael, and Nordhaus, Ted. (2004). The Death of environmentalism: Global warming politics in a post-environmental world. Proceedings of the Environmental Grantmakers Association, October 2004. IS. {PDF LINK}

Shulman, Seth. (1992). The threat at home: confronting the toxic legacy of the U.S. military. Beacon Press, Boston.

Shulman, Seth. (1991). Biohazard. University Press of America.

Shulman, Seth. (1993) Biohazard: How the Pentagon’s Biological Warfare Research Program Defeats Its Own Goals. A report for the Center for Public Integrity.

Shulman, Seth. (1999). Owning the future. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston. (IS)

Shulman, Seth. (May 2002). Trouble on the endless frontier: Science, Invention and the Erosion of the Technological Commons. A report for the New America Foundation.

Shulman, Seth. (January 8, 2007). Undermining science: suppression and distortion in the Bush administration. University of California Press.

Silicon Valley Toxics Coalition. (2002). Poison PCs and toxic TVs. San Jose, CA. www.svtc.org.

Stapleton, Heather M., et. al. (2004). Debromination of polybrominated diphenol ether congeners BDE 99 and BDE 183 in the intestinal tract of the common carp (Cyprinus carpio). Environmental Science and Technology. 38 (4).

Stich, Hans. F., Ed. (1982). Carcinogens and mutagens in the environment: Volume I: Food products. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. IS.

Thomas, V.M., J.A. Bedford, and R. J. Cicerone. (June 1, 1997). Bromine emissions from lead gasoline. Geophysical Research Letters. 24 (11). pg. 1371-74.

Tomy, Gregg T., et. al. (2004). Bioaccumulation, biotransformation, and biochemical effects of brominated diphenyl ethers in juvenile lake trout (Savelinus manaycush). Environmental Science and Technology. 38 (5).

ToxicExposure.Org Coalition. (March 22, 2001). First-Ever Government Report a "Wake-up Call" on Toxic Exposure of Average Americans. http://www.igc.org/igc/gateway/en/archive/arch032601.html

Ueno, Daisuke, et. al. (2004). Global pollution monitoring of polybrominated dipheyl ethers using skipjack tuna as a bioindicator. Environmental Science and Technology. 38 (5).

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United States Environmental Protection Agency. (November 2000). Guidance for assessing chemical contaminant data for use in fish advisories: Volume 2: Risk assessment and fish consumption limits. Third Edition. Office of Science and Technology, Office of Water, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. http://www.epa.gov/ost/fishadvice/volume2/index.html.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (2003). Trichloroethyline health risk assessment: synthesis and characterization: an EPA Science Advisory Board Report. www.epa.gov/sab/pdf/ehc03002.pdf.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (2003). Toxics release inventory (TRI) Explorer database. www.epa.gov/triexplorer.

Vives, Ingrid, et. al. (2004). Polybromodiphenyl ether flame retardants in fish from lakes in European high mountains and Greenland. Environmental Science and Technology. 38 (8).

Vos, Joseph G., et. al. (2003). Brominated flame retardants and endocrine disruption. Pure Applied Chemistry. 75 (11-12). pg. 2039-46.

Weiner, Jonathan. (March 1991). The next one hundred years. Bantam trade paperback edition. NY. IS

Weise, Elizabeth. (September 23, 2003). Flame retardant found in breast milk. USA Today. pg. 1.

Werbach, Adam.(2004). Is environmentalism dead? Presented to the Commonwealth Club of California. IS. {PDF LINK}

West, Robert C., Ed. (1973-4). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. 54th edition. CRC Press. IS.

West, Robert C. and Astle, Melvin J. (1982). CRC handbook of chemistry and physics. 63rd edition. CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton, FL. IS.

WHO/Convention Task Force on the Health Aspects of Air Pollution. (2003). Health risks of persistent organic pollutants from long-range transboundary air pollution. World Health Organization. www.euro.who.int/document/e78963.pdf.

Wolkers, Hans, et. al. (2004). Congener-specific accumulation and food chain transfer of polybrominated diphenyl ethers in two Arctic food chains. Environmental science and Technology. 38 (6). pg. 1667-74.

World Wildlife Federation. (2004). Living planet report 2004. WWF, October 9, 2004. IS. {PDF LINK}

World Wildlife Fund. (October 2004). Bad blood? A survey of chemicals in the blood of European ministers. World Wildlife Fund. www.worldwildlife.org/toxics/pubs/badblood.pdf.

Zogorski, John S, et. al. (2006). Volatile organic compounds in the nation’s ground water and drinking-water supply wells. U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey. Circular 1292. IS

Chlorinated Hydrocarbons

Maine State Legislature. (2004 session). LD 1790: An Act To Reduce Contamination of Breast Milk and the Environment from the Release of Brominated Chemicals in Consumer Products. http://www.mainelegislature.org/legis/bills/LD.asp?LD=1790.

Cardwell, Diane. (November 2, 2001). A nation challenged: Lower Manhattan: Workers and residents are safe, officials say. New York Times. pg. unknown.

Darnerud, Per Ola et. al. (March 2001). Polybrominated diphenyl ethers: Occurrence, dietary exposure, and toxicology. Environmental Health Perspectives. 109. Supplement 1. pg. 49-68.

Environment News Service. (September 6, 2001). EU lawmakers vote broad fire retardant ban. http://www.ens-newswire.com/.

Environmental Working Group. (2004). Mother's milk: Record levels of toxic fire retardants found in American mother's breast milk. http://www.ewg.org/reports/mothersmilk/.

• This online article contains 115 references on this subject in the bibliography.

Eriksson, Per et. al. (September 2001). Brominated flame retardants: A novel class of developmental neurotoxicants in our environment? Environmental Health Perspectives. 109(9). pg. 903-908.

Hale, Robert C. et. al. (July 12, 2001). Persistent pollutants in land-applied sludges. Nature. 412. pg. 140-141.

Hooper, Kim and McDonald, Thomas A. (May 2000). The PBDEs: An emerging environmental challenge and another reason for breast-milk monitoring programs. Environmental Health Perspectives. 108(5). pg. 387-392.

KemI. (March 15, 1999). KemI proposes a prohibition of flame retardants. http://www.kemi.se/default_eng.htm

Kodama, Hirokadzu and Ota, Hideo. (March/April 1980). Transfer of polychlorinated biphenyls to infants from their mothers. Archives of Environmental Health. 35(2). pg. 95-100. X.

Lipton, Eric and Revkin, Andrew C. (November 19, 2001). With water and sweat, fighting the most stubborn fire. New York Times. pg. unknown.

Noren, Koidu. (1983). Some aspects of the determination of organochlorine contaminants in human milk. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology. 12. pg. 277-283. X.

Polishuk, Z.W., Ron, M., Wassermann, M., Cucos, S., Wassermann, D. and Lemesch, C. (March 1977). Organochlorine compounds in human blood plasma and milk. Pesticides Monitoring Journal. 10(4). pg. 121-129. X.

Polishuk, Z.W., Wassermann, D., Wassermann, M., Cucos, S. and Ron, M. (1977). Organochlorine compounds in mother and fetus during labor. Environmental Research. 13. pg. 278-284. X.

Schubert, Charlotte. (October 13, 2001). Burned by flame retardants? Science News. 160. pg. 238-239.

Slorach, Stuart A. and Vaz, Reggie. (1983). Assessment of human exposure to selected organochlorine compounds through biological monitoring. Swedish National Food Administration, Upsala, Sweden. IS(2)-EH.

Steingraber, Sandra. (2001). Having faith: An ecologist's journey to motherhood. Perseus Publishing, Cambridge, MA.

Thurlow, William. (1979). Matacil spray report. Gander Environmental Group, Gander, Newfoundland. IS-EH.

World Health Organization. (1987). Environmental health: PCBs, PCDDs and PCDFs: Prevention and control of accidental and environmental exposures. World Health Organization, Copenhagen. IS-EH.

Dioxin

Schecter, Arnold, Cramer, P., Boggess, K., Stanley, J., Papke, O., Olson, J., Silver, A. and Schmitz, M. (2001). Intake of dioxins and related compounds from food in the U.S. population. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health. Part A. 63. pg. 101-118. X.

World Health Organization. (March 1986). Environmental health: Dioxins and furans from municipal incinerators. World Health Organization, Naples. IS-EH.

Heavy Metals

Adams, Mary Kelly. (1999). Toxics B. C.: A journey of imagination. Self-published, St. George, ME. IS.

Boutron, C., Candelone, J. and Hong, S. (1994). Past and recent changes in the large-scale tropospheric cycles of lead and other heavy metals as documented in Antarctic and Greenland snow and ice: A review. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta. 58(15).

Boutron, C. and Lorius C. (1979). Trace metals in Antarctic snows since 1914. Nature. 277(5697). pg. C 551-554.

Boutron, C. and Wolff, E.W. (1989). Heavy metal and sulphur emissions to the atmosphere from human activities in Antarctica. Atmospheric Environment. 23(8).

Centre for Environment, Fisheries & Aquaculture Science. (1997). Monitoring and surveillance of non-radioactive contaminants in the aquatic environment and activities regulating the disposal of wastes at sea, 1994. Science Series. Aquatic Environment Monitoring Report No. 47. CEFAS, Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, Great Britain. IS.

Gabrielli, P., Barbante, C., Planchon, F., Ferrari, C., Delmonte, B. and Boutron, C. (2003). Changes in the occurrence of heavy metals in Antarctic ice during the last climatic cycles. Geophysical Research Abstracts. 5.

Grossman, Elizabeth. (September 15, 2007). High tech trash: digital devices, hidden toxics, and human health. Shearwater; 2nd edition. IS

Ministries of Agriculture, Fish and Food. (1982). Survey of lead in food: Second supplementary report. Her Majesty’s London Stationary Office, London. IS-EH.

Rosman, K.J.R., Chisholm, W., Boutron, C.F., Hong, S., Edwards, P.R., Morgan, V.I. and Sedwick, P.N. (1998). Lead isotopes and selected metals in ice from Law Dome, Antarctica. Annals of Glaciology. 27(1). pg. 349-354.

Planchon, F., Van de Velde, K., Rosman, K.J.R., Wolff, E.W., Ferrari, C. and Boutron, C.F. (2003). One-hundred fifty-year record of lead isotopes in Antarctic snow from Coats Land. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta. 67(4). pg. 693-708.

Vallelonga, P., Van de Velde, K., Candelone, J.-P., Morgan, V. I., Boutron, C. F. and Rosman, K. J. R. (2002). The lead pollution history of Law Dome, Antarctica, from isotopic measurements on ice cores: 1500 AD to 1989 AD. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 204(1-2). pg. 291-306.

Vandal, G., Fitzgerald, W., Boutron, C. and Candelone, J. (April 1993). Variations in mercury deposition to Antarctica over the past 34,000 years. Nature. 362.

Wolff, E.W. and Suttie, E.D. (1994). Antarctic snow record of southern hemisphere lead pollution. Geophys. Res. Lett. 21. pg. 781-784.

Laser Atomic Fluorescence Analysis of Materials. Institute of Spectroscopy Russian Academy of Sciences.

Greenhouse Gasses and Climate Change

Koblert, E., Field notes from a catastrophe: Man, nature and climate change. Bloomsbury USA, Mew Yorik, NY, IS

Levenson, T., Ice time. Harper & Row Publishers, NY IS

Purdue University. "The Vulcan Project." 2007. Purdue University. 21 August 2008. <http://www.purdue.edu/eas/carbon/vulcan/index.php>

NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory. "Orbiting Carbon Observatory." 21 August 2008. NASA. 21 August 2008. <http://oco.jpl.nasa.gov/>

Walker, Gabrielle and Sir David Kline. (2008). The hot topic: what we can do about global warming. Harcourt Trade Publishers, San Diego and NY. IS

Ozone Layer Depletion

The Montreal protocol on substances that deplete the ozone layer. (1999) UNEP Ozone Secretariat, United Nations Environment Programme, Beijing IS

3rd Annual Report on Brominated Flame Retardants. (January 24, 2007) Departmetn of Environmental Protection, State of Maine IS

Bromated Flame Retardants. (February, 2005) Maine Bureau of Health and Maine Department of Environmental Protection. IS

Acid Rain

Hanson, Paul W. (February 1987). Acid rain and waterfowl: The case for concern in North America. Izaak Walton League of America, Arlington, VA. IS.

Harriss, R.C., Browell, E.V., Sebacher, D.I., Gregory, G.L., Hinton, R.R., Beck, S.M., McDougal, D.S. and Shipley, S.T. (April 1984). Atmospheric transport of pollutants from North America to the North Atlantic Ocean. Nature. 308. pg. 722-724. X.

Tomlinson, G. H. (date unknown). Dieback of red spruce; acid deposition, and changes in soil nutrient status - a review. In: Ulrich, B. and Pankrath, J., Eds. Effects of accumulation of air pollutants in forest ecology. (publisher unknown).

Vogelmann, H.W., Badger, G.J., Bliss, M. and Klein, R.M. (August 1985). Forest decline on Camels Hump, Vermont. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club. X.

Emerging Viral Infections and Pathogens

Center for Disease Control

• Antibiotic resistance. http://www.cdc.gov/drugresistance/index.html
• Avian Influenza. http://www.cdc.gov/flu/avian/index.htm.

Health Canada

• Antibiotic resistant germs. http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/english/iyh/medical/antibiotic.html.

Union of Concerned Scientists

• Food and Environment: Antibiotic Resistance. http://www.ucsusa.org/food_and_environment/antibiotic_resistance/index.cfm.

U. S. Food and Drug Administration

• Antibiotic Resistance. http://www.fda.gov/oc/opacom/hottopics/anti_resist.html.
• Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE) Also Known as 'Mad Cow Disease'. http://www.fda.gov/oc/opacom/hottopics/bse.html.

Garrett, Laurie. (1995). The coming plague. The Penguin Group. Penguin Books USA, Inc. NY. IS

McAllister, Philip E. (1990). Viral hemorrhagic septicemia of fishes. Fish Disease Leaflet 83. (Revision of Fish Disease Leaflet 6, Ken Wolf, 1966). US Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. IS

USDA, Viral hemorrhagic septicemia in the Great Lakes. (2006). Emerging Disease Notice. Centers for Epidemiology and Animal Health. IS

Mercury Toxicity and Autism

(This section is under construction.  The Davistown Museum Department of Environmental History is seeking additional citations and information as well as volunteer editors and data searchers for this important subject.)

Autism Research Institute. (February 2005). Treatment options for mercury/metal toxicity in autism and related developmental disabilities: Consensus position paper. Autism Research Institute, San Diego, CA. IS.

• On the web at: http://www.AutismResearchInstitute.com
• The complete text of the Autism Reseach Institute's publication on mercury toxicity and its relationship to autism can be accessed on the web at: http://www.autismwebsite.com/ari/dan/mercurymetaldetox.htm
• The bibliographic citations that follow the excerpts below from this article were extracted from the bibliography of this landmark publication.
• "The Autism Research Institute has been evaluating various biomedical treatments of autism since 1967. One approach has been simply to have patients rate the effectiveness of each of the biomedical treatments they have tried. Over 23,000 parents have responded to our questionnaires. Of the 77 biomedical interventions rated for efficacy by parents (see www.AutismResearchInstitute.com, select Parent Ratings for Treatments), mercury detoxification received a far higher rating than any drug, supplement, or special diet. Mercury detoxification was rated helpful by 73^% of parents, with the gluten/casein-free diet coming in second with 63^% . A remarkable and encouraging finding that must not be ignored!"
• "Overall, our consensus position is that removal of mercury and other toxic metals is one of the most beneficial treatments for autism and related disorders."
• "Provocation test: The most conclusive method to test for mercury/metal toxicity is the use of detoxification agents, followed by a collection of urine or stool depending on the mode of excretion. This test tells you two important facts: 1) the metal was present in the body, and 2) it demonstrates that the detoxification agent can remove it."
• "In the field of immunology it is well-known that metals can bind to different amino acids and become antigenic. Metals either oxidize proteins or form stable protein-metal chelate complexes by undergoing multi-point binding to several amino acids chains. Based on these chemical reactions, metals can persist for years in the body and continuously activate T-cells through specific alteration of self-protein."
• "Reduction of Toxic Exposure: Since the goal of detoxification is to lower toxic body burden, it is important to first reduce exposure to toxic metals as much as possible. This includes:"
• Avoidance of mercury-silver dental amalgams, which are the major source of mercury in most Americans. If a child has mercury amalgams, they may need to be carefully removed prior to beginning detoxification therapy. Removal should only be done by an expert dentist trained in the safe removal of amalgams, using high-vacuum suction and other safety measures, and even those measures can result in a temporary increase in mercury exposure.
• Avoidance of fish and some shellfish, especially the largest fish (shark, swordfish, tuna), which are highest in mercury. (Purified fish oil is allowed, as that contains important fatty acids and does not contain significant amounts of mercury. The safest oils are those that have been also tested for PCB's and other fat-soluble toxins).
• Purified water: have it tested by your local water company, or use reverse osmosis to remove all the toxic (and sadly the essential) minerals.
• Organic foods (preferred) or extensive washing of the surfaces of fruits and vegetables.
• Use only thimerosal-free vaccines.
• "Nutritional Status: Most children with autism have a need for increased amounts of vitamins, minerals, and some amino acids. Zinc is of especial concern, as it is usually low in autism. Some detoxification agents can remove essential minerals, so additional minerals will be needed. Anti-oxidant therapy is important to reduce oxidative stress and to raise glutathione levels. Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Vitamin B6, zinc, and selenium are especially needed, in addition to a broad-spectrum vitamin/mineral supplement."
• "Glutathione: Glutathione plays many important roles in the body, including binding to and eliminating toxic metals. Plasma glutathione levels are typically 50^% lower in children with autism, so it is important to normalize them prior to beginning detoxification. Otherwise, it is like bailing a leaky ship; you can bailout water (toxins), but they will leak back in if the "leaks" (lack of glutathione) are not fixed. Normally, glutathione concentrations are much higher inside cells, so it best to measure levels inside erythrocytes (red blood cells)."
• "Gut Dysbiosis: At least 50^% of children with autism suffer from constipation and/or diarrhea, and a study by Rosseneu found that 95^% of those children had extremely high levels of E.Coli and often other bacteria that produce high levels of endotoxins. Yeast dysbiosis may also be a concern. Some detoxification treatments can cause or exacerbate bacteria/yeast dysbiosis, either directly by providing food to them , or by causing excretion of toxic metals into the gut."
• "Mercury exposure at potentially dangerous levels is common in the US. The three major sources of mercury exposure to children in the US are maternal seafood consumption, maternal dental fillings, and childhood vaccines."
• Seafood Consumption: A recent report by the EPA estimates that 1 in 6 women in the US has mercury levels that place their infants at increased risk of neurological damage; i.e., over 300,000 infants at risk each year. This is based on evaluation of blood levels of mercury of 1709 women who participated in the 1999-2000 NHANES (National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey). They found that women who regularly consumed fish (9 or more servings per month) had 7x as much mercury in their blood as women who did not consume fish. In addition to the EPA, the FDA has also released their 2004 advisory regarding fish. They recommended that pregnant women not consume a single serving of some types of fish (shark and swordfish), and limit their consumption of other types. A single serving of shark or swordfish, which has on average 1 ppm of mercury, would contain 200 mcg of mercury in a typical 200g serving.
• Dental Amalgams: The most commonly used dental filling material in the US is mercury-silver dental amalgams, composed of 50^% mercury. Many studies have showed that those fillings release mercury vapor, and that approximately 80^% of that vapor is absorbed into the body. The amount of mercury absorbed into the body is in the range of 1-10mcg/day, depending on number of mercury dental amalgams. This amount of mercury is probably not harmful to most people by itself, but it adds to the overall body burden and increases the risk of additional exposures.
• Thimerosal in Childhood Vaccines: Thimerosal, a preservative utilized in the production of numerous medications including infant vaccines and immune globulin products contains 49.6^% ethyl mercury by weight. The history of thimerosal use in vaccines is complex. It was first used in the late 1930's, and as the number of vaccinations given to human infants increased, the amount of injected thimerosal increased. Thimerosal was removed from animal vaccines in the early 1990's. As part of an ongoing review of biological products, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) announced in 1999 that infants who received multiple mercury-preserved vaccines may have been exposed to cumulative mercury levels in excess of Federal safety guidelines. In 1999, the AAP (American Academy of Pediatrics) recommended it be removed from childhood vaccines, and in 2001 the FDA asked (but did not require) vaccine manufacturers to remove it from childhood vaccines. Today, thimerosal has been removed from most but not all childhood vaccines. In September 2004, California passed legislation to ban thimerosal use in childhood vaccines, and several other states have passed similar laws.
• It is interesting to note that thimerosal in vaccines was introduced in the late 1930's, only a few short years before Dr. Leo Kanner described a new mental disorder which differed "markedly and uniquely from anything reported" before. In it early history autism was diagnosed more frequently in affluent families, but became more evenly distributed socioeconomically by the 1970's. This apparent widening in demographics paralleled the increasing availability of vaccines to all children through federally sponsored programs. In the late 1980's and early 1990's the vaccine schedule was amended to include both Hepatitis B and HiB vaccines. Each of these vaccines was administered to infants 3 times during the first six-months of life. Their addition to the vaccine schedule potentially tripled an infant's exposure to mercury, should they receive all thimerosal-containing vaccines.
• During the 1980's and the 1990's, the Academy of Obstetrics and Gynecology recommended that all Rh- pregnant women receive a prophylactic does of anti-Rho-D immune globulin during the pregnancy at 28 weeks gestation. Prophylaxis was also recommended for any invasive procedure like amniocentesis or villi sampling and for any episodes of bleeding during the pregnancy. With approximately 15^% of the population being Rh- and many women choosing to delay childbirth and opting to undergo invasive procedures necessary to identify chromosomal abnormalities, exposure to mercury prenatally has also increased over the past decade. It has been during this same time period, the 1980's and especially the 1990's, that we have witnessed a tremendous increase in the occurrence of autism spectrum disorders. Anti Rho-D exposure levels also varied widely from a low of 7.5 mcg to a high of 65 mcg per dose. At times multiple doses were administered throughout the pregnancy.
• Toxicity of Thimerosal: Because there is little information on the toxicity of ethyl mercury (the form in thimerosal), much of the estimation of its toxicity is based on methyl mercury. However, a recent investigation by Burbacher (2004) in primates documented that ethyl mercury had a shorter half-life in the blood that methyl mercury, resulting in higher blood:brain ratios, and that it is rapidly converted to inorganic mercury, which is toxic and can stay in the brain for years. A study by Pichichero (2002) assessed blood levels of mercury in infants after exposure to thimerosal-containing vaccines and reported a level in a 2 month old infant of 20.55 nmol/L, five days after receiving only a 37.5 mcg exposure (but the level was probably even higher shortly after the injection). According to a letter to the editor written by Dr. Neal Halsey, a dose of 62.5 mcg could well have resulted in a peak blood mercury level of 48.3 nmol/l. Applying Burbacher's newly reported brain to blood partition ratio predicted brain levels of mercury would be 217.35 ng/g. Given that Baskin et al. (2003) have documented DNA damage, caspase-3 activation, nuclear membrane damage and cell death in cultured adult human neurons and fibroblasts exposed to 201 mcg/l ethyl mercury after 6 hours or less of incubation, it seems likely that routine vaccination practices during the 1990's may have resulted in neurodevelopmental injury to some infants.

 

Appendix B: Evidence of Mercury Toxicity in Autism Symptoms: A landmark literature review paper by Bernard et al., published in 2001 reported that all of the diagnostic criteria necessary for a diagnosis of autism were also observed in cases of mercury toxicity. For example, the major toxicity of mercury compounds is expressed in the central nervous system, although immune and gastrointestinal systems are also commonly affected. The same abnormalities in these systems have been found in children with autism. Mercury causes a pervasive disruption in the body by binding to sulfur which causes widespread dysfunction of enzymes, transport mechanisms and structural proteins. Therefore, clinical manifestations involve multiple organ systems with variable features and intensities. the same is true for autism.        Susceptibility to mercury appears to have a genetic component and boys are documented to be more affected than girls. Autism also occurs more frequently in boys than girls, with a ratio of approximately 4:1.      Mercury toxicity is known to cause speech and hearing deficits, including difficulty speaking and understanding speech. One of the primary features of autism is receptive and expressive language delay.      Sensory disturbances, including numbness in the mouth, hands and feet, sensitivity to loud noises, aversion to touch and over or under response to pain, are common manifestations of mercury toxicity. These same sensory disturbances are also common in children with autism.      Mercury exposure is known to cause cognitive impairment and difficulty with abstract ideas and complex commands, social withdrawal, anxiety and obsessive-complusive behaviors. These same symptoms are also well documented in children with autism.      Mercury disrupts serotonin, dopamine, glutamate and acetylcholine neurotransmitters. These same abnormalities have been found in children with autism. Mercury in the brain targets the Purkinje cells and granule layer of the cerebellum as well as the amygdala and hippocampus, while other areas are spared. This same pattern of pathology has been found in autistic brains.      Mercury toxicity causes damage to the immune system and triggers autoimmune processes, including shifts in the Th2 lymphocytes. These same autoimmune processes are known to occur in autism. Mercury exposure can increase susceptibility to certain virus strains, which may be related to a decrease in the NK cell function. A subset of autistic children have been found to have evidence of chronic viral infections, including measles virus. Mercury poisoning can cause gastrointestinal disturbances and inhibit digestive enzymes and peptides. Many children with autism develop gastrointestinal problems and have difficulty digesting dairy and wheat products.      In summary, the paper by Bernard et al. shows that all the symptoms reported in the literature for autism have also been reported in the literature for mercury toxicity, and vice versa. it seems very likely that some children suffering from mercury toxicity would be given the diagnosis of "autism," which is simply a label indicating they have a communication/behavior/social disorder of unknown cause. Mercury toxicity seems likely to be a cause of many cases or "autism".      Overall, infants have limited ability to excrete mercury, and children with autism have an unusually low ability to excrete mercury due to low glutathione and excessive oral antibiotics. Furthermore, antibiotics increase the toxicity of mercury.

Adams, J.B. (July 2004). A review of the autism-mercury connection. Conference Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Autism Society of America.

American Academy of Pediatrics. (September 1999). Thimerosal in Vaccines - An Interim Report to Clinicians (RE9935). American Academy of Pediatrics Policy Statement. 104 (3). pg. 570-574.

Berglund, A. (1990). Estimation by a 24-hours study of the daily dose of intra-oral mercury vapor inhaled after release from dental amalgam. Journal of Dental Research. 69. pg. 1646-1651.

Bernard, S., Enayati, A., Redwood, L., Roger, H., and Binstock, T. (2001). Autism: a novel form of mercury poisoning.Medical Hypotheses. 56(4). pg. 462-471.

Biodiversity Research Institute. 19 Flaggy Meadow Road, Gorham, ME 04038. Phone: (207) 839-7600.

• This website contains several articles about mercury findings.

Bradstreet, J., Geier DA, Kartzinel JJ, Adams JB, and Gier MR. (2003). A Case-Control study of mercury burden in children with autistic spectrum disorders. Journal of American Physicians and Surgeons. 8(3). pg. 76-79.

Buttar, R.A. (May 6, 2004). Autism: the misdiagnosis of our future generations, US congressional sub-committee on wellness and human rights. Washington, D.C.

Chauhan, A, Chauhan V., Brown, W.T., and Cohen, I. (Oct 8, 2004). Oxidative stress in autism: increased lipid peroxidation and reduced serum levels of ceruloplasmin and transferrin - the antioxidant proteins. Life Science. 75(21). pg. 2539-49.

Dally, A. (August 1997). The rise and fall of pink disease. Society of Historical Medicine. 10(2). pg. 291-304.

Geier, D.A., and Geier, M.R. (Apr-Jun 2003). An assessment of the impact of thimerosal on childhood neurodevelopmental disorders.Pediatric Rehabilitation. 6(2). pg. 97-102.

Geier, D.A., and Geier, M.R. (2003). Thimerosal in childhood vaccines, neurodevelopment disorders, and heart disease in the united states. Journal of American Physicians and Surgeons. 8(1). pg. 6-11.

Graef, J.W. (1994). Heavy metal poisoning. Chapter 396. In: Isselbacher et al. Eds. Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine.  13th Ed. McGraw-Hill. pg. 2465.

Mahaffey, K.R., Clickner, R.P., and Bocurow, C.C. (1999 & 2000). Blood organic mercury and dietary mercury intake: National health and nutrition examination survey. Environmental Health Perspectives. 112(5). pg. 562-570.

McGinnis, W.R. (Nov-Dec 2004). Oxidative stress in autism. Alternative Therapies in Health Medicine. 10(6). pg. 22-36.

Patterson, J.E., Weissberg, B.G., and Dennison, P.J. (1981). Mercury in human breath from dental amalgams. Journal of Dental Research. 60. pg. 1668-1671.

US Department of Health and Human Services. (1999). Toxicological Profile for Mercury. Sec. 1.6. US Department of Health and Human Services, Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry.

Vinay, S.P., Raghn, K.G., and Sood, P.P. (1990). Dose and duration related methylmercury deposition, glycosidase inhibition, myelin degeneration and chelation therapy. Cellular and Molecular Biology. 36(5). pg. 609-623.

Journals

Gulf of Maine Times. PO Box 339, Annapolis Royal, NS, CANADA B0S IA0.

• The Davistown Museum has in the library the following copies:
• Summer 2002. IS.

MERI News. PO Box 1652, Blue Hill, ME, 04614, (207) 374-2135.

• Newsletter of the Marine Environmental Research Institute.
• The Davistown Museum has in the library the following copies:
• Spring 2002. IS.

Oceans. Oceanic Society, 2001 W. Main St., Stamford, CT 06902.

• The Davistown Museum has in the library the following copies:
• Volume 21, nos. 5, October 1988. IS.

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Paradigm IV: Anthropogenic Radioactivity: Abbreviated bibliography
For a much more extensive bibliography of publications on anthropogenic radioactivity see
the Center for Biological Monitoring Archives.

Aarkrog, A., Botter-Jensen, L., Dahlgaard, H., Hansen, H., Lippert, J., Nielsen, S.P. and Nilsson, K. (June 1982). Environmental radioactivity in Denmark in 1981. Riso-R-469. Riso National Laboratory, Roskilde, Denmark. IS.

• Aarkrog's publications at the RISO National Laboratory provide a comprehensive survey of environmental contamination resulting from anthropogenic (man-caused) radioactivity at locations far removed from most source points of radioactive plumes.
• The baseline data contained in these reports provides vital information in the case of another nuclear disaster or catastrophe or for evaluating the impact of a terrorist attack utilizing nuclear weapons or radioactive contaminants.
• Hard copies of these reports may be reviewed by Davistown Museum visitors in the fourth floor environmental history library.  No other copies of these reports are known to exist in any other US public library.

Aarkrog, A., Dahlgaard, H., Hallstadius, L., Holm, E. and Lippert, J. (July 1982). Environmental radioactivity in the Faroes in 1981. Riso-R-470. Riso National Laboratory, Roskilde, Denmark. IS.

Aarkrog, A., Dahlgaard, H., Holm, E., Hansen, H., Lippert, J. and Nilsson, K. (July 1982). Environmental radioactivity in Greenland in 1981. Riso-R-471. Riso National Laboratory, Roskilde, Denmark. IS.

Aarkrog, A., Botter-Jensen, L., Dahlgaard, H., Hansen, H., Lippert, J. and Nielsen, S.P. (June 1983). Environmental radioactivity in Denmark in 1982. Riso-R-487. Riso National Laboratory, Roskilde, Denmark. IS.

Aarkrog, A., Dahlgaard, H., Hallstadius, L., Holm, E., Hansen, H. and Lippert, J. (July 1983). Environmental radioactivity in the Faroes in 1982. Riso-R-488. Riso National Laboratory, Roskilde, Denmark. IS.

Aarkrog, A., Dahlgaard, H., Hallstadius, L., Holm, E., Hansen, and H., Lippert, J. (July 1983). Environmental radioactivity in Greenland in 1982. Riso-R-489. Riso National Laboratory, Roskilde, Denmark. IS.

Aarkrog, A., Boelskifte, S., Botter-Jensen, L., Dahlgaard, H., Hansen, H. and Nielsen, S.P. (June 1984). Environmental radioactivity in Denmark in 1983. Riso-R-509. Riso National Laboratory, Roskilde, Denmark. IS.

Aarkrog, A., Boelskifte, S., Buch, E., Christensen, G.C., Dahlgaard, H., Hallstadius, L., Hansen, H., Holm, E., Mattsson, S. and Meide, A. (December 1984). Environmental radioactivity in the North Atlantic region. The Faroe Islands and Greenland included. 1983. Riso-R-510. Riso National Laboratory, Roskilde, Denmark. IS.

Aarkrog, A., Boelskifte, S., Botter-Jensen, L., Dahlgaard, H., Hansen, H. and Nielsen, S.P. (June 1985). Environmental radioactivity in Denmark in 1984. Riso-R-527. Riso National Laboratory, Roskilde, Denmark. IS.

Aarkrog, A., Boelskifte, S., Buch, E., Christensen, G.C., Dahlgaard, H., Hallstadius, L., Hansen, H. and Holm, E. (December 1985). Environmental radioactivity in the North Atlantic region. The Faroe Islands and Greenland included. 1984. Riso-R-528. Riso National Laboratory, Roskilde, Denmark. IS.

Aarkrog, A., Boelskifte, S., Buch, E., Christensen, G.C., Dahlgaard, H., Hallstadius, L., Hansen, H., Holm, E. and Rioseco, J. (June 1987). Environmental radioactivity in the North Atlantic region. The Faroe Islands and Greenland included. 1985. Riso-R-541. Riso National Laboratory, Roskilde, Denmark. IS.

Aarkrog, A., Botter-Jensen, L., Chen, Q.J., Dahlgaard, H., Hansen, H., Holm, E., Lauridsen, B., Nielsen, S.P. and Sogaard-Hansen, J. (May 1989). Environmental radioactivity in Denmark in 1987. Riso-R-563. Riso National Laboratory, Roskilde, Denmark. IS.

Aarkrog, A., Buch, E., Chen, Q.J., Christensen, G.C., Dahlgaard, H., Hansen, H., Holm, E. and Nielsen, S.P. (July 1989). Environmental radioactivity in the North Atlantic region. The Faroe Islands and Greenland included. 1987. Riso-R-564. Riso National Laboratory, Roskilde, Denmark. IS.

Aarkrog, A., Buch, E., Chen, Q.J., Christensen, G.C., Dahlgaard, H., Hansen, H., Holm, E. and Nielsen, S.P. (January 1992). Environmental radioactivity in the North Atlantic region including the Faroe Islands and Greenland. 1988 and 1989. Riso-R-571(EN). Riso National Laboratory, Roskilde, Denmark. IS.

Aarkrog, A., Botter-Jensen, L., Chen, Q.J., Clausen, J., Dahlgaard, H., Hansen, H., Holm, E., Lauridsen, B., Nielsen, S.P., Strandberg, M. and Sogaard-Hansen, J. (February 1995). Environmental radioactivity in Denmark in 1992 and 1993. Riso-R-756(EN). Riso National Laboratory, Roskilde, Denmark. IS.

American Society of Dowsers, Inc. (1974). Effects of harmful radiations and noxious rays: A series of research papers by noted scientists and authors. American Society of Dowsers, Inc., Danville, VT. IS.

Baldash, Lawrence. (1979). Radioactivity in America: Growth and decay of a science. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD. IS-EH.

Bedford, Henry F. (1990). Seabrook Station: Citizen politics and nuclear power. The University of Massachusetts Press, Amherst, MA. IS.

Boursnell, J.C. (1958). Safety techniques for radioactive tracers. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England. IS.

Brack, H.G., Ed. (1986). A review of radiological surveillance reports of waste effluents in marine pathways at the Maine Yankee Atomic Power Company at Wiscasset, Maine--- 1970-1984: An annotated bibliography. Pennywheel Press, Hulls Cove, ME. IS.

• All radiological surveillance in the vicinity of the Maine Yankee facility other than the GTS Duratek Characterization Survey Report and quarterly licensee environmental surveys had been discontinued by the time this bibliography was published in 1986.
• This bibliography will be scanned and posted on this website sometime during 2003.
• See annotations in the Decommissioning Debacle bibliography in RADNET.

Brack, H.G. (1993). Legacy for our children: The unfunded costs of decommissioning the Maine Yankee Atomic Power Station. Pennywheel Press, Hulls Cove, ME. IS.

Brack, H.G. (1998). Patterns of noncompliance: The Nuclear Regulatory Commission and the Maine Yankee Atomic Power Company: Generic and site-specific deficiencies in radiological surveillance programs. Center for Biological Monitoring, Hulls Cove, ME. IS.

• The full copy of this report is reprinted in its entirety in RADNET.

Brack, H.G., Ed. Chernobyl Fallout Data: Annotated Bibliography. Section 10 of RADNET. www.davistownmuseum.org.

Bradley, David. (1983). No place to hide: 1946/1984. University Press of New England, Hanover, NH. IS.

Bryant, P.M. and Jones, J.A. (December 1972). The future implications of some long-lived fission product nuclides discharged to the environment in fuel reprocessing wastes. NRPB-R8. National Radiological Protection Board, Harwell, Didcot, Berkshire, England. IS.

Caldicott, Helen. (1978). Nuclear madness: What you can do!  Bantam Books, Inc., NY, NY. Reprinted in 1980. IS.

Camplin, W.C. and Aarkrog, A. (1989). Radioactivity in north European waters: Report of Working Group II of CEC Project MARINA. Fisheries Research Data Report No 20. Directorate of Fisheries Research, Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, Lowestoft, England. IS.

Corliss, William R. (1968). Space radiation. U.S. Energy Research and Development Administration, Office of Pubic Affairs, Washington, DC. IS.

Crowther, James Arnold. (n.d.) Ions, electrons, and ionizing radiations. University Press, Cambridge, England. IS.

Dibb, J., Mayewski, P.A., Buck, C.F. and Drummey, S.M. (1990). Beta radiation from snow. Nature. 344(6270). pg. 25.

Dotto, Lydia. (1986). Planet earth in jeopardy: Environmental consequences of nuclear war, John Wiley and Sons. IS-EH.

Ebbin, Steven and Kasper, Raphael. (1974). Citizen groups and the nuclear power controversy: Uses of scientific and technological information. The MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. IS.

Farber, S.A. and Hodgdon, A.D. (July 25, 1991). Cesium-137 in wood ash: Results of nationwide survey. PP 91-015. Presented at the Annual Meeting of the Health Physics Society. Yankee Atomic Electric Company, Boston, MA. IS.

• Startling data on weapons testing contamination of New England hardwoods.

Ford, Daniel F. (1982). The cult of the atom: The secret papers of the Atomic Energy Commission. Simon and Schuster, NY, NY. IS.

Ford, Daniel F. (1982). Three Mile Island: Thirty minutes to meltdown. Penguin Books, NY, NY. IS.

Ford, Daniel F. and Kendall, Henry W. (1974). An assessment of the emergency core cooling systems rulemaking hearings. Union of Concerned Scientists, Cambridge, MA. IS.

• This text contains unnerving information about what is one of only a few likely causes of a major nuclear accident at a commercial nuclear power plant.

Fowler, John M., Ed. (1960). Fallout: A study of superbombs, strontium 90, and survival. Basic books, Inc., NY, NY. IS.

Fusco, Paul and Caris, Magdalena. (2001). Chernobyl Legacy: Twenty four minutes and zero seconds anti meridian. de.MO, Millbrook, NY. IS.

• A chilling and moving photo tour of the legacy of the Chernobyl accident.
• The cesium contamination maps show fallout levels ranging up to 7,400,000 Bq/m² in a spotty pattern over thousands of square miles to the north and northeast of Chernobyl, with lesser quantities of deposition on the European component of the map found later in the text.
• The limited written text is poetic, informative, concise and haunting.

Gedikoglu, A. and Sipahi, B.L. (January 1989). Chernobyl radioactivity in Turkish tea. Health Physics. 56(1). pg. 97-101. X.

• This article contains data documenting astounding levels of contamination in Turkish tea.

Glasstone, Samuel and Jordan, Walter H. (1980). Nuclear power and its environmental effects. American Nuclear Society, La Grange Park, IL. IS.

Gofman, J.W. (1981). Radiation and human health; a comprehensive investigation of the evidence relating low-level radiation to cancer and other diseases. Sierra Club Books, San Francisco. IS.

• Although health effects of ionizing radiation are not the topic of this section of the website, Gofman's 1981 publication remains the standard reference for explaining the biological significance of ionizing radiation in general and long-lived radionuclides in particular.
• Gofman provides an excellent introduction to the subject of ionizing radiation and why it is so much more harmful than other kinds of radiation.
• A copy of this important reference is available in the fourth floor environmental history library of The Davistown Museum.

Hardy, E.P., Jr. (July 1, 1980). Environmental Measurements Laboratory: Environmental quarterly. EML-374. Department of Energy, NY, NY. IS.

• The Department of Energy's tiny Environmental Measurements Laboratory was an important source of information on environmental radioactivity in the days before all such information became classified.

Hardy, E.P., Jr. (October 1, 1980). Environmental Measurements Laboratory: Environmental quarterly. EML-381. Department of Energy, NY, NY. IS.

Hardy, E.P., Krey, P.W. and Volchok, H.L. (February 1973). Global inventory and distribution of fallout plutonium. Nature. 241. pg. 444-445. X.

• One of the most important letters ever presented in the British journal Nature.
• Compare the initial reports of plutonium in the environment with proposed surface contamination guidelines for decommissioning nuclear facilities.

Hawkes, Nigel, Lean, Geoffrey, Leigh, D., Mckie, R., Pringle, P. and Wilson, A. (1986). Chernobyl: The end of the nuclear dream. Vintage Books a Division of Random House, NY, NY. IS.

Helus, Frank, Ed. (1983). Radionuclides production: Volume I. CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton, FL. IS.

Helus, Frank, Ed. (1983). Radionuclides production: Volume II. CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton, FL. IS.

Hunt, G.J. (1987). Aquatic environment monitoring report number 18: Radioactivity in surface and coastal waters of the British Isles, 1986. Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, Directorate of Fisheries Research, Lowestoft, England. IS.

Huver, Charles W., Dixon, Gertrude A., Jacobson, Naomi and Dixon, George I.J. (1979). Methodologies for the study of low-level radiation in the midwest. Anvil Press, Millville, MN. IS.

Ikaheimonen, T.K., Ilus, E.I. and Saxen, R. (1988). Finnish studies on radioactivity in the Baltic Sea in 1987: Supplement 8 to Annual Report 1987 No. STUK-A74. Report No. STUK-A82. Finnish Centre for Radiation and Nuclear Safety, Helsinki, Finland. IS.

Ilus, E., Klemola, S., Sjoblom, K.L. and Ikaheimonen, T.K. (1988). Radioactivity of Fucus vesiculosus along the Finnish coast in 1987: Supplement 9 to Annual Report 1987 (STUK-A74). Report No. STUK-A83. Finnish Centre for Radiation and Nuclear Safety, Helsinki, Finland. IS.

International Atomic Energy Agency. (1965). Methods of surveying and monitoring marine radioactivity. Safety Series No. 11, IAEA, Vienna. IS.

International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War and the Institute for Energy and Environmental Research. (1991). Radioactive heaven and earth: The health and environmental effects of nuclear weapons testing in, on, and above the earth. The Apex Press, NY, NY. IS.

Izrael, Y. A. (2002). Radioactive fallout after nuclear explosions and accidents. In the series: Radioactivity in the Environment, 3.  Elsevier, UK.

Jablon, Seymour, Hrubec, Zdenek, Boice, John D., Jr. and Stone, B.J. (July 1990). Cancer in populations living near nuclear facilities: Volume 2 - individual facilities: Cancer before and after start-up. NIH Publication No. 90-874, National Institutes of Health, Washington, DC. X.

Kase, Kenneth R. and Nelson, Walter R. (1978). Concepts of radiation dosimetry. Pergamon Press, NY, NY. IS.

Lash, Terry R., Bryson, John E. and Cotton, Richard. (November 1975). Citizens' guide: The national debate on the handling of radioactive wastes from nuclear power plants. National Resources Defense Council, Inc., Palo Alto, CA. IS.

Linsley, G.S., Simmonds, J.R. and Kelly, G.N. (December 1978). An evaluation of the food chain pathway for transuranium elements dispersed in soils. NRPB-R81. National Radiological Protection Board, Harwell, Didcot, Oxfordshire, England. IS.

Livesey, J.C., Reed, D.J. and Adamson, L.F. (1985). Radiation-protective drugs and their reaction mechanisms. Noyes Publications, Park Ridge, NJ. IS.

Maine Yankee Atomic Power Company. (October, 1997). Site characterization management plan. Prepared by GTS Duratek, Inc., for the Maine Yankee Atomic Power Plant. IS.

• Follow this link to a discussion of the site characterization management plan.
• This initial report was the predecessor for the final survey cited below that provided confirmation of the significance of the first of two episodes of fuel cladding failure at MYAPC.

Maine Yankee Atomic Power Company. (April 16, 1998). Appendix A: Spent fuel and other radioactive material stored in the Maine Yankee spent fuel pool. MYPS-101, Rev. 0. Maine Yankee Atomic Power Company, Wiscasset, ME. IS.

• The smoking gun of fuel failure at MYAPC, this confidential inventory confirms the presence of failed and damaged fuel assemblies in the MYAPC spent fuel pool.
• This is the licensee generated data that indicates spent fuel pellets were spilled in sufficient quantities during fuel cladding failure accidents that they contaminated vacuum filters with such high levels of radioactivity that the filters must be sited as spent fuel wastes.

Maine Yankee Atomic Power Company. (April 1998). GTS Duratek characterization survey report for the Maine Yankee Atomic Power Plant, revision 1. 9 vols. Prepared by GTS Duratek, Inc. for the Maine Yankee Atomic Power Plant, Wiscasset, ME. IS.

• An important and chilling documentation of fuel cladding failure derived soil contamination at the Maine Yankee Atomic Power Company in Wiscasset, Maine.  See especially secret supplemental survey 2501 at the end of volume 6, which documents the 1984 reactor water leak.
• For more information and citations about the role of the Maine Yankee Atomic Power Company and its impact in the Norumbega bioregion also link to:
• Twilight of the Nuclear Era: The Maine Yankee Atomic Power Company
• Decommissioning Debacle

Majumdar, Shyamal K. and Miller, E. Willard, Eds. (1985). Management of radioactive materials & wastes: Issues & progress. The Pennsylvania Academy of Science, Easton, PA. IS.

Mann, W.B., Ayres, R.L. and Garfinkel, S.B. (1980). Radioactivity and its measurement: Second Edition (SI units): Revised and expanded. Pergamon Press, NY, NY. IS.

Markey, Edward J. and Waller, Douglas. (1982). Nuclear peril: The politics of proliferation. Ballinger Publishing Company, Cambridge, MA. IS.

Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food. (1996). Radioactivity in food and the environment, 1995. RIFE-1. MAFF, London. IS.

• More important baseline data not available in the US.

Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food and Scottish Environment Protection Agency. (September 1997). Radioactivity in food and the environment, 1996. RIFE-2. MAFF and SEPA, London. IS.

Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food and Scottish Environment Protection Agency. (September 1998). Radioactivity in food and the environment, 1997. RIFE-1. MAFF, London. IS.

National Council of Churches of Christ in the U.S.A. (September 1975). The plutonium economy. National Council of Churches of Christ in the U.S.A., NY, NY.

National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements. (1971). Basic radiation protection criteria. NCRP Report No. 39., NCRP, Bethesda, MD. Fifth reprinting March 1, 1982. IS.

Nelkin, Dorothy. (1971). Nuclear power and its critics: The Cayuga Lake controversy. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY. IS.

Nuclear Energy Agency. (April 1980). Review of the continued suitability of the dumping site for radioactive waste in the north-east Atlantic. NEA, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Paris, France. IS.

Nuclear Energy Agency. (September 1981). The environmental and biological behaviour of plutonium and some other transuranium elements. NEA, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Paris, France. IS.

Nuclear Energy Agency. (1989). Nuclear accidents: Intervention levels for protection of the public. NEA, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Paris, France. IS.

Oak Ridge National Laboratory. (December 1997). Integrated Data Base Report, 1996: U.S. Spent Nuclear Fuel and Radioactive Waste Inventories, projections, and characteristics (revision 13). Report No. DOE/RW-0006, Rev. 13. Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN. IS.

• The only source of information on the exact inventory of spent fuel at US nuclear reactors.
• This component of the database is now classified information and no longer available to the general public.
• The only known copy of this publication in any US public library is available for perusal in the fourth floor environmental history library of The Davistown Museum.

O'Dea, John. (1997). Exposure: Living with radiation in Ireland. Making History Series, Irish Reporter Publications, Dublin, Ireland. IS.

Ortmeyer, Pat. (n.d.). Let them drink milk: Iodine-131 doses from nuclear weapons testing. Science for Democratic Action. 6(2). pg. 3, 11-12. X.

Puhakainen, M., Rahola, T. and Suomela, M. (1987). Radioactivity of sludge after the Chernobyl accident in 1986: Supplement 13 to Annual Report STUK-A55. Report No. STUK-A68. Finnish Centre for Radiation and Nuclear Safety, Helsinki, Finland. IS.

Salame-Alfie, Adela, Condon, W., Damiani, A. Huang, J. and Wigley, W. (1994). Environmental radiation in New York state: 1994 annual report. Bureau of Environmental Radiation Protection, New York State Department of Health, Albany, NY. IS.

Shannon, Sara. (1987). Diet for the atomic age: How to protect yourself from low-level radiation. Avery Publishing Group Inc., Wayne, NJ.

Shapiero, Fred C. (1981). Radwaste: A reporter’s investigation of a growing nuclear menace. First Edition. Random House, NY, NY. IS-EH.

Shapiro, Jacob. (1972). Radiation protection: A guide for scientists and physicians. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. IS.

Sjoblom, Kirsti-Liisa, Klemola, S., Ilus, E., Arvela, H. and Blomqvist, L. (June 1989). Monitoring of radioactivity in the environs of Finnish nuclear power stations in 1987: Supplement 5 to Annual Report STUK-A74. Finnish Centre for Radiation and Nuclear Safety, Helsinki, Finland. IS.

Smeloff, Ed and Asmus, Peter. (1997). Reinventing electric utilities: Competition, citizen action, and clean power. Island Press, Washington, DC. IS.

Stephens, Mark. (1980). Three Mile Island: The hour-by-hour account of what really happened. Random House, NY, NY. IS.

Sternglass, Ernest. (1972). Secret fallout: Low-level radiation from Hiroshima to Three-Mile Island. Ballantine Books. Reprinted in 1981 by McGraw-Hill Book Company, NY, NY. IS.

Toombs, George L., Martin, Sylvia L., Culter, Peter B. and Dibblee, Martha G. (n.d.). Environmental radiological surveillance report on Oregon surface waters 1961 - 1983: Volume I. Radiation Control Section, Health Division, Oregon Department of Human Resources, Portland, OR. IS.

Toonkel, Lawrence E. (July 1, 1980). Appendix to Environmental Measurements Laboratory: Environmental quarterly. EML-374 APPENDIX. Department of Energy, NY, NY. IS.

Toonkel, Lawrence E. (October 1, 1980). Appendix to Environmental Measurements Laboratory: Environmental quarterly. EML-381 APPENDIX. Department of Energy, NY, NY. IS.

United Nations. (1972). Ionizing radiation: Levels and effects: A report of the United Nations Scientific Committee on the effects of atomic radiation to the General Assembly, with annexes: Volume I: Levels. UN, NY, NY. IS.

• The original and definitive source of information on the biological effects of ionizing radiation.

United Nations. (1996). Sources and effects of ionizing radiation: United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation UNSCEAR 1996 report to the General Assembly, with scientific annex. UN, NY, NY. IS.

United Nations Environment Programme, the International Labour Organization, and the World Health Organization. (1983). Selected radionuclides: Tritium, carbon-14, krypton-85, strontium-90, iodine, caesium-137, radon, plutonium. Environmental Health Criteria 25. World Health Organization, Geneva. IS.

United States Department of Commerce. (September 24, 1954). Permissible dose from external sources of ionizing radiation: Recommendations of the National Committee on Radiation Protection. National Bureau of Standards Handbook 59, US Department of Commerce, Washington, DC. IS.

United States Department of Commerce. (June 5, 1959). Maximum permissible body burdens and maximum permissible concentrations of radionuclides in air and in water for occupational exposure: Recommendations of the National Committee on Radiation Protection. National Bureau of Standards Handbook 69, US Department of Commerce, Washington, DC. IS.

United States Department of Energy. (April 1994). Committed to results: DOE's environmental management program: An introduction. DOE/EM-0152P. U.S. DOE, Washington, DC. IS.

United States Federal Energy Regulatory Commission. (September 15, 1997). Connecticut Yankee Atomic Power Company: Rebuttal testimony of James K. Joosten. Docket No. ER97-913-000. Office of the Attorney General, State of Connecticut. IS.

• This testimony has been reprinted by the Center for Biological Monitoring under the title of Hot Particle Contamination at the Connecticut Yankee Atomic Power Company: Testimony of James K. Joosten Before the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission September 15, 1997: Supplied Courtesy of Office of Attorney General State of Connecticut.  For further description of fuel cladding failures and other reactor-derived contamination at Connecticut Yankee please link to James K. Joosten's rebuttal testimony above.
• Joosten's testimony is particularly relevant to a consideration of MYAPC's impact on the environment surrounding the Wiscasset reactor.  Connecticut Yankee experienced 456 fuel asssembly failures, the largest on record for an NRC licensee available to the general public.  In contrast, MYAPC's confidential inventory of the spent fuel pool lists 66 failed fuel assemblies along with several hundred other 'nonstandard" fuel assemblies.  For more details on the inventory of MYAPC's spent fuel pool link to the confidential report annotated by the Center for Biological Monitoring.
• The Seabrook New Hampshire reactor experienced four fuel assembly failures involving only five fuel rods which nonetheless, according to NRC transcripts, spread fuel assembly-derived fission products throughout the reactor water systems in the summer of 1997.
• At the Maine Yankee Atomic Power Company, both Charles Hess (May 1976) and the licensee have documented the spread of hot particle contamination from within the reactor to off-site locations near the plant.  Further discussion pertaining to the characterizaqtion of MYAPC-derived contamination is contained in the Center for Biological Monitoring publication Patterns of Noncompliance:  The Nuclear Regulatory Commission and The Maine Yankee Atomic Power Company: Generic and Site-specific Deficiencies in Radiological Surveillance Programs.
• One of the most revealing parts of Joosten's testimony is his description of hot particles:  "Q. What is the origin of 'hot particles'?

A.  They appear to have three principle origins:
• Fuel -- Failures of the nuclear fuel cladding allow irradiated fuel material to enter the reactor's cooling water during operation and fuel handling evolutions.  Minute fragments can then be transported to other auxiliary systems, radwaste systems, drains, and ventilation systems.  (Connecticut Yankee has experienced a relatively large number of fuel rod failures.)
• CRUD -- Piping and other components corrode and release tiny particles of cobalt, manganese, iron, and other metals into the reactor cooling water.  These particles pass through the intense radiation fields in the reactor and become highly radioactive.  They can be transported throughout the connected water systems and may settle out in crevices or plate-out on the inside of components.  (CRUD has been found at Connecticut Yankee both in the plant and outdoors.)  All of the hot particles found in the MYAPC environs to date are of this type.
• Debris --- Debris can also enter the reactor cooling water during improperly controlled maintenance operations in the form of metal shavings, filings, chips, grit, or dust.  These particles pass through the intense radiation fields in the reactor and become highly radioactive.  Like CRUD, small debris particles can be transported throughout the connected water systems and may settle out in crevices or plate-out on the inside of components.  (One of Connecticut Yankee's significant fuel failure events was caused by metallic debris left in the reactor.)"

Wang, Yen., Ed. (1969). Handbook of radioactive nuclides. The Chemical Rubber Company, Cleveland, OH. IS.

Wasserman, Harvey and Soloman, Norman. (1982). Killing our own: The disaster of America’s experience with atomic radiation. Dell Publishing, NY, NY. IS-EH.

Webb, G.A.M. (May 1974). Radiation exposure of the public - the current levels in the United Kingdom. NRPB-R24. National Radiological Protection Board, Harwell, Didcot, Oxfordshire, England. IS.

World Health Organization. (1982). Nuclear power: Health implications of transuranium elements. European Series No. 11,WHO Regional Publications, Copenhagen. IS.

World Health Organization. (1985). The quantity and quality of breast milk: Report on the WHO collaborative study on breast feeding. World Health Organization, Switzerland. IS-EH.

World Health Organization. (1987). Nuclear accidents and epidemiology: Reports on two meetings: Epidemiology related to the Chernobyl nuclear accident and appropriate methodologies for studying possible long-term effects of radiation on individuals exposed in a nuclear accident.  Environmental Health Series No. 25, WHO Regional Publications, Copenhagen. IS.